AbstractThis paper examines the development of positive accounting the terjemahan - AbstractThis paper examines the development of positive accounting the Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

AbstractThis paper examines the dev

Abstract

This paper examines the development of positive accounting theory (PAT) and compares it with three standard accounts of science: Popper (1959), Kuhn (1996), and Lakatos (1970). PAT has been one of the most influential accounting research programs during the last four decades. One important reason which Watts & Zimmerman (1986) have used to popularize and legitimize their approach is that their view of accounting theory is the same as that used in science. Thus, it is important to examine how far accounting has been successful in imitating natural science and how the development of PAT compares with the three standard accounts of science. This paper shows that accounting could not emulate the success of natural science. Further, the methodological positions of PAT conform to none of the standard accounts of science. Rather, PAT contains elements of all three. Finally, this paper identifies some methodological gaps in PAT.

Keywords: Positive Accounting Theory, Philosophy of Science, Methodological Controversies




Acknowledgements

I would like to thank two anonymous reviewers of the journal for their helpful comments. Earlier versions of this paper benefited from comments from Lee Parker of the University of South Australia, Keith Hooper of Auckland University of Technology, Divesh Sharma of Kennesaw State University, and Santi Narayan Ghosh of the University of Dhaka.



Introduction

This paper examines the development of positive accounting theory (PAT) and compares it with three standard accounts of science. There is some confusion about what PAT is. If the definition of accounting theory (i.e., accounting theory seeks to explain and predict accounting and auditing practice) given in Watts and Zimmerman’s 1986 book is taken to mean PAT, studies of accounting choices and auditing practices constitute PAT. At the same time, they also seek to explain the economics-based empirical literature in accounting and they describe, in addition to accounting choice studies, capital market-based accounting research. They point out that Ball and Brown (1968) initially popularized positive research in accounting, suggesting that PAT includes both capital market-based accounting research and research in accounting choices. This paper takes PAT to include both research programs. This usage is consistent with Watts and Zimmerman’s (1986) assertion that when they use the term “positive” to differentiate it from “prescriptive” theory.

Positive Accounting Theory and Science

137


PAT has been one of the most influential accounting research programs during the last four decades. It has spawned a great deal of empirical research on the association between accounting numbers and stock prices and returns, and determinants of accounting choices by management. It has spawned a number of accounting journals, among which the Journal of Accounting and Economics is the most prominent. Brinn, Jones, and Pendlebury (1996), in a survey of UK academics’ perceptions of journal quality, found that the top four accounting journals are the following: Journal of Accounting and Economics, Journal of Accounting Research, the Accounting Review, and Accounting, Organizations and Society. Articles published in the top three journals are predominantly in the positive tradition. The sheer number of articles in these two paradigms published in major accounting journals and the dominance of PAT in PhD programs in US and other universities testify to the dominant position of PAT. Thus, judged by the number of research articles, the number and dominance of the journals it spawned, and the dominance of PAT in doctoral programs, PAT has been immensely influential.

Before the emergence of PAT, normative accounting research had been the dominant research tradition in accounting. Normative accounting theorists had been preoccupied with developing accounting principles1. The primary concern of these researchers had been recognition and measurement issues in accounting. Typical accounting questions asked and answered by normative accounting theorists include whether to recognize changes in market prices if the entity is not a party to the transaction, what basis (e.g., historical cost, market value, etc.) to use in preparing financial statements, etc. (Chambers,
1966; Ijiri, 1975; Littleton, 1953; MacNeal, 1939; Paton & Littleton, 1940). In contrast with normative accounting theory which deals with “should” type questions, PAT deals with “is” type questions. Instead of asking which measurement basis to use in accounting, PAT asked, for example, whether accounting information is useful to the stock market, which accounting measurement basis management actually uses, and why.

Thus, PAT represents a major shift in accounting research paradigm. One important comparison to which Watts and Zimmerman (1986) have appealed to legitimize and promote PAT is the sameness of their view of theory and that in science. They have cited various philosophy of science authors to assert that their view of theory is the same as that in science and to justify their method; and to discredit, to a certain extent, normative theory. Thus, given that PAT has been of interest to accounting theorists for around four decades, it is important to examine how far PAT has been successful in imitating natural sciences and what the limits have been. It is also important to revisit the methodological positions of PAT. It would be interesting to see how the development pattern of PAT compares with accounts of science to which Watts and Zimmerman appealed to legitimize and promote their theory. This is because such a comparison will enhance our understanding of how PAT progressed and what methodological gaps remain.

PAT has been subject to various criticisms since its emergence. For example, Chambers (1993) called the advocates of PAT a PA cult. Sterling (1990) criticized PAT on the ground that it restricted itself to the positive study of accounting practice and accounting practitioners and hinders accounting progress by neglecting the need for the assessment of accounting practice. Sterling (1990) further assessed its potential accomplishment as being nil. Whittington (1987) criticized PAT for its methodological intolerance and asserted that normative accounting theory had a legitimate place in accounting. Neu (1997) provided a largely negative appraisal of PAT. Sue (1997) said that PAT narrowed the researchers’ focus. Hall (1997), on the other hand, disagreed with Sterling’s (1990) assessment that the potential contribution of PAT was nil. Deegan (1997) examined how PAT had ignited emotions among academics. It attracted many academics and alienated some at the same time. Milne (2002) judged PAT’s attempt to explain an entity’s social disclosures as failure.

However, not many articles compared the development of PAT with different accounts of science in spite of the fact that Watts and Zimmerman appealed to science as a way of promoting their theory. Mouck (1990) is the notable exception. He likened PAT to the Lakatosian research program. Others (e.g., Christenson, 1983; Sterling, 1990) criticized PAT for not following the methodological dictates of Popper. However, none of these papers have attempted to compare the development pattern of PAT with Popper (1959), Kuhn (1996), and Lakatos (1970). This paper attempts to do this.

This paper focuses mainly on Watts and Zimmerman’s 1986 book and the empirical accounting literature of accounting choices and capital market-based accounting research. The empirical accounting literature is surveyed to determine how it has developed during the last four decades.

138

Positive Accounting Theory and Science


This paper discusses three interrelated methodological issues: (a) how PAT progressed over time, (b) the role of counterevidence/anomalies in PAT, and (c) how a theory is to be chosen from among competing theories. These three issues are chosen because, as mentioned above, Popper (1959), Kuhn (1996), and Lakatos (1970) do not give the same account of these issues as they apply to science.

The rest of this paper is structured as follows: The next section provides a brief sketch of the development of positive accounting theory, and this sketch serves as the basis for discussion in Sections
3-7. Section 3 discusses the contribution of PAT to accounting practice and Section 4 examines the difficulties of PAT. Sections 5-7 compare the developmental pattern with three standard accounts of the development of science. The last section contains conclusions.

Development of PAT2

PAT started with examining some assumptions underlying normative accounting prescriptions during the 1960s. Two sets of empirical studies3 were conducted. One set of studies (e.g., Ball & Brown, 1968; Beaver, 1968; Foster, 1977; Beaver, Clarke, & Wright, 1979; Beaver, Lambert, & Morse, 1980; Grant,
1980; McNichols & Manegold, 1983) examined the association between accounting earnings numbers and stock prices. Results indicated that earnings numbers reflected factors (e.g., cash flow and risk) relevant to stock valuation. This, according to Watts and Zimmerman (1986), undermined the claim in normative accounting literature that accounting earnings numbers were meaningless because they were computed using multiple valuation bases. The second set of studies (e.g., Kaplan & Roll, 1972; Sunder,
1973, 1975; Ricks, 1982; Biddle & Lindahl, 1982) attempted to discriminate between two competing hypotheses: the no-effects hypothesis and the mechanistic hypothesis.4 Evidence in these studies is mixed and could not successfully discriminate between the competing hypotheses.

The above sets of studies have used the Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) and the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) as their underlying foundation. Furthermore, it was assumed that contracting costs5 were zero. Overall, these studies raised doubts about the empirical descriptiveness of the
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AbstractThis paper examines the development of positive accounting theory (PAT) and compares it with three standard accounts of science: Popper (1959), Kuhn (1996), and Lakatos (1970). PAT has been one of the most influential accounting research programs during the last four decades. One important reason which Watts & Zimmerman (1986) have used to popularize and legitimize their approach is that their view of accounting theory is the same as that used in science. Thus, it is important to examine how far accounting has been successful in imitating natural science and how the development of PAT compares with the three standard accounts of science. This paper shows that accounting could not emulate the success of natural science. Further, the methodological positions of PAT conform to none of the standard accounts of science. Rather, PAT contains elements of all three. Finally, this paper identifies some methodological gaps in PAT.Keywords: Positive Accounting Theory, Philosophy of Science, Methodological ControversiesAcknowledgementsI would like to thank two anonymous reviewers of the journal for their helpful comments. Earlier versions of this paper benefited from comments from Lee Parker of the University of South Australia, Keith Hooper of Auckland University of Technology, Divesh Sharma of Kennesaw State University, and Santi Narayan Ghosh of the University of Dhaka.Introduction
This paper examines the development of positive accounting theory (PAT) and compares it with three standard accounts of science. There is some confusion about what PAT is. If the definition of accounting theory (i.e., accounting theory seeks to explain and predict accounting and auditing practice) given in Watts and Zimmerman’s 1986 book is taken to mean PAT, studies of accounting choices and auditing practices constitute PAT. At the same time, they also seek to explain the economics-based empirical literature in accounting and they describe, in addition to accounting choice studies, capital market-based accounting research. They point out that Ball and Brown (1968) initially popularized positive research in accounting, suggesting that PAT includes both capital market-based accounting research and research in accounting choices. This paper takes PAT to include both research programs. This usage is consistent with Watts and Zimmerman’s (1986) assertion that when they use the term “positive” to differentiate it from “prescriptive” theory.

Positive Accounting Theory and Science

137


PAT has been one of the most influential accounting research programs during the last four decades. It has spawned a great deal of empirical research on the association between accounting numbers and stock prices and returns, and determinants of accounting choices by management. It has spawned a number of accounting journals, among which the Journal of Accounting and Economics is the most prominent. Brinn, Jones, and Pendlebury (1996), in a survey of UK academics’ perceptions of journal quality, found that the top four accounting journals are the following: Journal of Accounting and Economics, Journal of Accounting Research, the Accounting Review, and Accounting, Organizations and Society. Articles published in the top three journals are predominantly in the positive tradition. The sheer number of articles in these two paradigms published in major accounting journals and the dominance of PAT in PhD programs in US and other universities testify to the dominant position of PAT. Thus, judged by the number of research articles, the number and dominance of the journals it spawned, and the dominance of PAT in doctoral programs, PAT has been immensely influential.

Before the emergence of PAT, normative accounting research had been the dominant research tradition in accounting. Normative accounting theorists had been preoccupied with developing accounting principles1. The primary concern of these researchers had been recognition and measurement issues in accounting. Typical accounting questions asked and answered by normative accounting theorists include whether to recognize changes in market prices if the entity is not a party to the transaction, what basis (e.g., historical cost, market value, etc.) to use in preparing financial statements, etc. (Chambers,
1966; Ijiri, 1975; Littleton, 1953; MacNeal, 1939; Paton & Littleton, 1940). In contrast with normative accounting theory which deals with “should” type questions, PAT deals with “is” type questions. Instead of asking which measurement basis to use in accounting, PAT asked, for example, whether accounting information is useful to the stock market, which accounting measurement basis management actually uses, and why.

Thus, PAT represents a major shift in accounting research paradigm. One important comparison to which Watts and Zimmerman (1986) have appealed to legitimize and promote PAT is the sameness of their view of theory and that in science. They have cited various philosophy of science authors to assert that their view of theory is the same as that in science and to justify their method; and to discredit, to a certain extent, normative theory. Thus, given that PAT has been of interest to accounting theorists for around four decades, it is important to examine how far PAT has been successful in imitating natural sciences and what the limits have been. It is also important to revisit the methodological positions of PAT. It would be interesting to see how the development pattern of PAT compares with accounts of science to which Watts and Zimmerman appealed to legitimize and promote their theory. This is because such a comparison will enhance our understanding of how PAT progressed and what methodological gaps remain.

PAT has been subject to various criticisms since its emergence. For example, Chambers (1993) called the advocates of PAT a PA cult. Sterling (1990) criticized PAT on the ground that it restricted itself to the positive study of accounting practice and accounting practitioners and hinders accounting progress by neglecting the need for the assessment of accounting practice. Sterling (1990) further assessed its potential accomplishment as being nil. Whittington (1987) criticized PAT for its methodological intolerance and asserted that normative accounting theory had a legitimate place in accounting. Neu (1997) provided a largely negative appraisal of PAT. Sue (1997) said that PAT narrowed the researchers’ focus. Hall (1997), on the other hand, disagreed with Sterling’s (1990) assessment that the potential contribution of PAT was nil. Deegan (1997) examined how PAT had ignited emotions among academics. It attracted many academics and alienated some at the same time. Milne (2002) judged PAT’s attempt to explain an entity’s social disclosures as failure.

However, not many articles compared the development of PAT with different accounts of science in spite of the fact that Watts and Zimmerman appealed to science as a way of promoting their theory. Mouck (1990) is the notable exception. He likened PAT to the Lakatosian research program. Others (e.g., Christenson, 1983; Sterling, 1990) criticized PAT for not following the methodological dictates of Popper. However, none of these papers have attempted to compare the development pattern of PAT with Popper (1959), Kuhn (1996), and Lakatos (1970). This paper attempts to do this.

This paper focuses mainly on Watts and Zimmerman’s 1986 book and the empirical accounting literature of accounting choices and capital market-based accounting research. The empirical accounting literature is surveyed to determine how it has developed during the last four decades.

138

Positive Accounting Theory and Science


This paper discusses three interrelated methodological issues: (a) how PAT progressed over time, (b) the role of counterevidence/anomalies in PAT, and (c) how a theory is to be chosen from among competing theories. These three issues are chosen because, as mentioned above, Popper (1959), Kuhn (1996), and Lakatos (1970) do not give the same account of these issues as they apply to science.

The rest of this paper is structured as follows: The next section provides a brief sketch of the development of positive accounting theory, and this sketch serves as the basis for discussion in Sections
3-7. Section 3 discusses the contribution of PAT to accounting practice and Section 4 examines the difficulties of PAT. Sections 5-7 compare the developmental pattern with three standard accounts of the development of science. The last section contains conclusions.

Development of PAT2

PAT started with examining some assumptions underlying normative accounting prescriptions during the 1960s. Two sets of empirical studies3 were conducted. One set of studies (e.g., Ball & Brown, 1968; Beaver, 1968; Foster, 1977; Beaver, Clarke, & Wright, 1979; Beaver, Lambert, & Morse, 1980; Grant,
1980; McNichols & Manegold, 1983) examined the association between accounting earnings numbers and stock prices. Results indicated that earnings numbers reflected factors (e.g., cash flow and risk) relevant to stock valuation. This, according to Watts and Zimmerman (1986), undermined the claim in normative accounting literature that accounting earnings numbers were meaningless because they were computed using multiple valuation bases. The second set of studies (e.g., Kaplan & Roll, 1972; Sunder,
1973, 1975; Ricks, 1982; Biddle & Lindahl, 1982) attempted to discriminate between two competing hypotheses: the no-effects hypothesis and the mechanistic hypothesis.4 Evidence in these studies is mixed and could not successfully discriminate between the competing hypotheses.

The above sets of studies have used the Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) and the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) as their underlying foundation. Furthermore, it was assumed that contracting costs5 were zero. Overall, these studies raised doubts about the empirical descriptiveness of the
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Abstrak Makalah ini membahas pengembangan teori akuntansi positif (PAT) dan membandingkannya dengan tiga akun standar ilmu: Popper (1959), Kuhn (1996), dan Lakatos (1970). PAT telah menjadi salah satu program penelitian akuntansi yang paling berpengaruh selama empat dekade terakhir. Salah satu alasan penting yang Watts & Zimmerman (1986) telah digunakan untuk mempopulerkan dan melegitimasi pendekatan mereka adalah bahwa pandangan mereka teori akuntansi adalah sama dengan yang digunakan dalam ilmu. Dengan demikian, penting untuk memeriksa seberapa jauh akuntansi telah berhasil meniru ilmu alam dan bagaimana perkembangan PAT membandingkan dengan tiga rekening standar ilmu pengetahuan. Makalah ini menunjukkan bahwa akuntansi tidak bisa meniru keberhasilan ilmu alam. Selanjutnya, posisi metodologis PAT sesuai dengan tidak ada rekening standar ilmu pengetahuan. Sebaliknya, PAT mengandung unsur ketiga. Akhirnya, tulisan ini mengidentifikasi beberapa kesenjangan metodologis dalam PAT. Kata kunci: Positif Akuntansi Teori, Filsafat Ilmu, Metodologi Kontroversi Ucapan Terima Kasih Saya ingin berterima kasih kepada dua pengulas anonim jurnal untuk membantu komentar mereka. Versi sebelumnya dari makalah ini manfaat dari komentar dari Lee Parker dari University of South Australia, Keith Hooper dari Auckland University of Technology, Divesh Sharma dari Kennesaw State University, dan Santi Narayan Ghosh dari Universitas Dhaka. Pendahuluan Makalah ini membahas pengembangan teori akuntansi positif (PAT) dan membandingkannya dengan tiga rekening standar ilmu pengetahuan. Ada beberapa kebingungan tentang apa PAT adalah. Jika definisi teori akuntansi (yaitu, akuntansi teori berusaha untuk menjelaskan dan memprediksi akuntansi dan praktek audit) yang diberikan dalam Watts dan 1986 buku Zimmerman diartikan PAT, studi pilihan akuntansi dan praktek audit merupakan PAT. Pada saat yang sama, mereka juga berusaha untuk menjelaskan literatur empiris berbasis ekonomi akuntansi dan mereka menggambarkan, di samping studi pilihan akuntansi, penelitian akuntansi berbasis pasar modal. Mereka menunjukkan bahwa Ball dan Brown (1968) awalnya dipopulerkan penelitian positif dalam akuntansi, menunjukkan bahwa PAT meliputi penelitian akuntansi berbasis pasar modal dan penelitian dalam pilihan akuntansi. Makalah ini mengambil PAT untuk memasukkan kedua program penelitian. Penggunaan ini konsisten dengan Watts dan (1986) pernyataan Zimmerman bahwa ketika mereka menggunakan istilah "positif" untuk membedakannya dari "preskriptif" teori. Positif Teori Akuntansi dan Ilmu 137 PAT telah menjadi salah satu program penelitian akuntansi yang paling berpengaruh selama terakhir empat dekade. Ini telah melahirkan banyak penelitian empiris pada hubungan antara angka akuntansi dan harga saham dan return, dan faktor-faktor penentu pilihan akuntansi oleh manajemen. Hal ini telah melahirkan sejumlah jurnal akuntansi, di antaranya Jurnal Akuntansi dan Ekonomi adalah yang paling menonjol. Brinn, Jones, dan Pendlebury (1996), dalam survei persepsi akademisi Inggris 'kualitas jurnal, menemukan bahwa empat jurnal akuntansi atas adalah sebagai berikut: Jurnal Akuntansi dan Ekonomi, Jurnal Penelitian Akuntansi, Review Akuntansi, dan Akuntansi , Organisasi dan Masyarakat. Artikel yang dipublikasikan di tiga jurnal sebagian besar adalah dalam tradisi positif. Banyaknya artikel di dua paradigma ini diterbitkan dalam jurnal akuntansi utama dan dominasi PAT dalam program PhD di Amerika Serikat dan universitas lain bersaksi ke posisi dominan PAT. Dengan demikian, dinilai dari jumlah artikel penelitian, jumlah dan dominasi jurnal itu melahirkan, dan dominasi PAT di program doktor, PAT telah sangat berpengaruh. Sebelum munculnya PAT, penelitian akuntansi normatif telah menjadi tradisi penelitian yang dominan dalam akuntansi. Teori akuntansi normatif telah sibuk dengan mengembangkan principles1 akuntansi. Perhatian utama dari peneliti ini telah pengakuan dan pengukuran masalah dalam akuntansi. Pertanyaan akuntansi khas diajukan dan dijawab oleh teori akuntansi normatif termasuk apakah untuk mengenali perubahan harga pasar jika entitas bukan merupakan pihak untuk transaksi, dasar apa (misalnya, biaya historis, nilai pasar, dll) untuk digunakan dalam penyusunan laporan keuangan, dll (Chambers, 1966; Ijiri, 1975; Littleton, 1953; MacNeal, 1939; Paton & Littleton, 1940). Berbeda dengan teori akuntansi normatif yang berkaitan dengan "harus" jenis pertanyaan, PAT berkaitan dengan "adalah" jenis pertanyaan. Alih-alih meminta yang pengukuran dasar untuk digunakan dalam akuntansi, PAT bertanya, misalnya, apakah informasi akuntansi berguna untuk pasar saham, yang akuntansi benar-benar menggunakan manajemen dasar pengukuran, dan mengapa. Jadi, PAT merupakan perubahan besar dalam paradigma penelitian akuntansi. Satu perbandingan penting yang Watts dan Zimmerman (1986) telah mengajukan banding untuk melegitimasi dan mempromosikan PAT adalah kesamaan pandangan mereka tentang teori dan yang dalam ilmu. Mereka telah menyebutkan berbagai filsafat penulis sains untuk menegaskan bahwa pandangan mereka tentang teori adalah sama dengan yang dalam ilmu dan untuk membenarkan metode mereka; dan untuk mendiskreditkan, sampai batas tertentu, teori normatif. Dengan demikian, mengingat bahwa PAT telah menarik bagi teori akuntansi untuk sekitar empat dekade, penting untuk memeriksa seberapa jauh PAT telah berhasil meniru ilmu alam dan apa batas-batas telah. Hal ini juga penting untuk meninjau kembali posisi metodologis PAT. Ini akan menarik untuk melihat bagaimana pola pengembangan PAT membandingkan dengan akun ilmu yang Watts dan Zimmerman mengajukan banding untuk melegitimasi dan mempromosikan teori mereka. Hal ini karena perbandingan tersebut akan meningkatkan pemahaman kita tentang bagaimana PAT berkembang dan apa kesenjangan metodologis tetap. PAT telah dikenakan berbagai kritik sejak kemunculannya. Misalnya, Chambers (1993) disebut pendukung PAT kultus PA. Sterling (1990) mengkritik PAT dengan alasan bahwa hal itu membatasi diri pada studi positif dari praktik akuntansi dan praktisi akuntansi dan menghalangi kemajuan akuntansi dengan mengabaikan kebutuhan untuk penilaian praktik akuntansi. Sterling (1990) dinilai lebih lanjut prestasi potensinya sebagai nihil. Whittington (1987) mengkritik PAT untuk intoleransi metodologis dan menegaskan bahwa teori akuntansi normatif memiliki tempat yang sah dalam akuntansi. Neu (1997) memberikan penilaian sebagian besar negatif PAT. Sue (1997) mengatakan bahwa PAT mempersempit peneliti fokus. Hall (1997), di sisi lain, tidak setuju dengan Sterling (1990) penilaian bahwa potensi kontribusi PAT adalah nihil. Deegan (1997) meneliti bagaimana PAT telah tersulut emosi antara akademisi. Ini menarik banyak akademisi dan terasing beberapa pada saat yang sama. Milne (2002) dinilai upaya PAT untuk menjelaskan pengungkapan sosial suatu entitas sebagai kegagalan. Namun, tidak banyak artikel dibandingkan pengembangan PAT dengan account yang berbeda dari ilmu terlepas dari fakta bahwa Watts dan Zimmerman mengimbau ilmu sebagai cara untuk mempromosikan teori mereka . Mouck (1990) adalah pengecualian. Ia mengibaratkan PAT untuk program penelitian Lakatosian. Lain (misalnya, Christenson, 1983; Sterling, 1990) mengkritik PAT untuk tidak mengikuti perintah metodologis Popper. Namun, tidak satupun dari makalah ini telah berusaha untuk membandingkan pola pengembangan PAT dengan Popper (1959), Kuhn (1996), dan Lakatos (1970). Tulisan ini mencoba untuk melakukan hal ini. Makalah ini berfokus terutama pada Watts dan Zimmerman 1986 buku dan literatur akuntansi empiris pilihan akuntansi dan penelitian akuntansi berbasis pasar modal. Literatur akuntansi empiris yang disurvei untuk menentukan bagaimana ia telah berkembang selama empat dekade terakhir. 138 Positif Teori Akuntansi dan Ilmu Makalah ini membahas tiga saling isu metodologi: (a) bagaimana PAT berkembang dari waktu ke waktu, (b) peran counterevidence / anomali di PAT, dan (c) bagaimana teori yang akan dipilih dari antara teori yang bersaing. Ketiga isu tersebut dipilih karena, sebagaimana disebutkan di atas, Popper (1959), Kuhn (1996), dan Lakatos (1970) tidak memberikan account yang sama dari masalah ini karena mereka berlaku untuk ilmu pengetahuan. Sisa makalah ini disusun sebagai berikut : Bagian berikutnya memberikan sketsa singkat tentang perkembangan teori akuntansi positif, dan sketsa ini berfungsi sebagai dasar untuk diskusi pada Bagian 3-7. Bagian 3 membahas kontribusi PAT untuk praktik akuntansi dan Bagian 4 membahas kesulitan PAT. Bagian 5-7 membandingkan pola perkembangan dengan tiga rekening standar pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan. Bagian terakhir berisi kesimpulan. Pengembangan pat2 PAT mulai dengan memeriksa beberapa asumsi yang mendasari resep akuntansi normatif selama 1960-an. Dua set studies3 empiris dilakukan. Satu set studi (misalnya, Ball & Brown, 1968; Beaver, 1968; Foster, 1977; Beaver, Clarke, & Wright, 1979; Beaver, Lambert, & Morse, 1980; Grant, 1980; McNichols & Manegold, 1983) meneliti hubungan antara angka akuntansi pendapatan dan harga saham. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa angka laba tercermin faktor (misalnya, arus kas dan risiko) yang relevan untuk penilaian saham. Ini, menurut Watts dan Zimmerman (1986), merusak klaim dalam literatur akuntansi normatif yang nomor laba akuntansi yang berarti karena mereka dihitung dengan menggunakan beberapa basis penilaian. Set kedua studi (misalnya, Kaplan & Roll, 1972; Sunder, 1973, 1975; Ricks, 1982; Biddle & Lindahl, 1982) berusaha untuk membedakan antara dua hipotesis bersaing: no-efek hipotesis dan hypothesis.4 Bukti mekanistik dalam studi ini adalah campuran dan tidak bisa berhasil membedakan antara hipotesis bersaing. Set di atas studi telah menggunakan Hipotesis Efisien Pasar (EMH) dan Pricing Model Capital Asset (CAPM) sebagai dasar yang mendasari mereka. Selanjutnya, diasumsikan bahwa costs5 kontraktor yang nol. Secara keseluruhan, studi ini menimbulkan keraguan tentang descriptiveness empiris dari




















































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