Hasil (
Bahasa Indonesia) 1:
[Salinan]Disalin!
alongshore to the south due to the predominant waves
from the northwest. Griggs and Savoy (1985)suggest
that sand mining reduced the shore-connected shoals
that are prevalent along this shoreline, which protect the
beach by dissipating the winter storm wave energy
within the surf zone. The lack of shore-connected shoals
would allow the wave energy to reach the shore more
easily and erode the beach and dune face. In this manner,
it is hypothesized that sand mining contributed to dune
erosion.
Estimates of the amount of sand mined from the surf
zone vary. TheU.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1985)
estimated that a total of 540,000 m
3
were mined prior to
1959 and that about 60,000 m
3
were mined in 1959.
Dorman (1968)estimated 76,000 m
3
/yr, whereas Arnal
et al. (1973) estimated 190,000–230,000 m
3
/yr. The
amount of sand mined is difficult to accurately
determine as the mining companies went to court and
made the records proprietary, ostensibly to insure there
was no price fixing. Information on the amounts of sand
mined was provided for the Sand City operations
through personal communication with the mine operators just prior to the closing of the mines (Robinette,
1987; Battalio, 1989), and this information is the basis
for the estimates inTable 2. The estimates for the Marina
operations are based on the values provided in Sand
City, as the operations were similar. The maximum
estimate is based on the maximum amount allowed in
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers lease of 76,000 m
3
/yr
by Lone Star Industries in Sand City for the years from
1968 to 1988 and 115,000 m
3
/yr by the combined
Monterey Sand Company operations at Sand City and
Marina for the years 1968–1990. Sand mining leases
were not renewed after 1988, as it was hypothesized that
the mining contributed to erosion (Griggs and Jones,
1985). It is assumed in the lease request that the miners
conservatively overestimated their needs. The minimum
is assumed to be simply 50% of the best estimate. Based
on the best estimate, the total yearly averaged sand
mined during the intensive 1940–1984 mining period
was 128,000 m
3
/yr, which is equivalent to almost 50%
of the 270,000 m
3
/yr average dune loss.
The slopes of the recession plots are examined to
determine if the rate of recession (slope) has changed
since sand mining stopped. The dune top recessions are
compared with the amount of sand mined at the
combined Sand City operations inFig. 11and at the
combined Marina operations inFig. 12(summarized in
Table 1). The errors in the measurements (given earlier)
are indicated by the dimensions of the symbols with a
time uncertainty of +/−0.5years. The uncertainty in
slope is estimated as the difference in the minimum and
maximum slopes calculated as a regression on the
minimum and maximum measurement uncertainties.
Examining the evolution of erosion rates, there appears
to be at least a qualitative decrease in the regression
slopes for 1984–2004 after sand mining stopped
compared with the regression slopes of 1940s–1984,
during the time of intensive sand mining. Hypothesis
tests were applied to determine whether the regression
slopes have changed using a two-sidedt-distribution test
(see for example, Bowker and Liegerman, 1961). The
slopes and t-statistic values are given in Table 1. For
locations between Monterey and Sand City at alongshore distances 3 km (Fig. 11) and 4 km, there are
statistically significant decreases in the slopes. For
locations between Sand City and Marina at alongshore
distances 6 and 8 km (Fig. 12), there is a qualitative
decrease in slopes, but they are not statistically
significant. Therefore, it is concluded that sand mining
increased erosion, at least south of Sand City mining
operations.
Sand extraction can be viewed as“digging a hole”in
the surf zone, and it would be expected that sand would
be drawn from both upcoast and downcoast as well as
onshore and offshore to fill the hole (Dean, 2004).
However, since alongshore transport of sand is generally
to the south along this shoreline, it would be expected
the hole would be filled more by the upcoast drift. The
southerly transport of sand intercepted by the mining
would reduce available sand to the beaches to the south
of the mining operations. Therefore, it would be
expected that locations south of mining operations
would be more affected.
Fig. 11. Recession of dune top dune edge at locations 1 km (rectangles)
and 3 km (ellipses), and the total amount of sand mined at Sand City
operations at locations 4.8–5.6 km (seeTable 2). Regression slopes
have been calculated separately between 1940s–1984 during time of
intensive sand mining and 1984–2004 after intensive mining (see
Table 1). Uncertainties are indicated by dimensions of symbols.
56 E.B. Thornton et al. / Marine Geology 229 (2006) 45–58
A possible reason that the rate of erosion has
decreased between Monterey and Sand City is because
the average 81,000 m
3
/yr of sand mined at Sand City
during the intensive mining years of 1940–1984 was
nearly twice the average amount of 47,000 m
3
/yr
mined at Marina during the same time period. While
during this same time, the average rate of recession for
locations south of the Sand City mines (averaged over
locations 1, 3, and 4 km) was 0.85 m/yr compared
with the average rate of recession for locations south
of the Marina mines (averaged over locations 6 and
8 km) of 1.43 m/yr (seeTables 1and2). The expected
impact of stopping sand mining would be greater south
of Sand City where the erosion rate was lower, but the
volume of sand mining was greater, compared with the
larger erosion rates and lower amounts of sand mined
south of the Marina area. Therefore, it is concluded
that sand mining increased the mean recession rates,
and also affected the alongshore variation in recession
owing to the different amounts of sand extracted at the
two sites.
It was pointed out earlier that erosion is not spatially
or temporally constant. At most sites, there was an
increase in recession between the measurements just
prior to 1984 and again between 1997 and 1998, which
coincide with the 1982–83 and 1997–98 El Niños.
There are only four data points between 1984 and 2004,
resulting in only two degrees of freedom on the tstatistic. Therefore, a large change in slope is required to
have a statistically significant change, even though the
erosion rate qualitatively appears to have decreased
everywhere. The highly episodic wave climate complicates relating the volume of sand extracted by mining
operations with volumes of sand eroded along the
coast.
6. Summary and conclusions
Long-term erosion rates were measured along 18 km
of shoreline in Southern Monterey Bay from 1940 to
2004. Erosion is defined here as a recession of the top
edge of the dune. Dune erosion occurs when storm
waves and high tides coincide to undercut the base of the
sand dune causing the dune to slump onto the beach.
This results in permanent recession. Dune erosion varied
spatially alongshore for both the long-term mean, over
kilometer scales, and for the short-term seasonal
variation over scales O(200 m). Erosion occurred
along the entire 18 km shoreline and varied alongshore
at long-term rates that increase from about 0.5 m/yr at
Monterey to 1.5 m/yr near Fort Ord and then decrease
further north. Causes examined to explain the spatial
variation in erosion are: concentration of wave energy,
fluctuations in mean sea level, changes in rainfall, and
the amount of historical sand mining. It is concluded
that the primary reason for alongshore variation in
recession rates is the gradient in mean wave energy
going from small waves at Monterey, which is sheltered
by Point Piños, to larger waves northward.
Erosion is highly episodic. Erosion events are
enhanced during stormy winters and particularly during
El Niño periods, when prolonged storm waves coinciding with high tides and elevated sea level erode the
protective beach and berm, exposing the dune to wave
run-up and undercutting. Dune recession appears to be
correlated with variations in mean sea level. Mean sea
level is increased during El Niño winters. The calculated
volume loss of the dune in southern Monterey Bay
during the 1997–98 El Niño winter was 1,820,000 m
3
,
which is almost seven times the historical mean annual
dune loss of 270,000 m
3
/yr. Although during an El Niño
winter an increase in the erosion rate can be observed,
the preceding and following non-El Niño years
compensate for this increase with lower erosion rates,
keeping the overall historical trend consistent.
The Southern Monterey Bay surf zone was intensively sand mined starting in the early 1900s and
continuing until 1990. It was hypothesized that sand
mining was a primary cause of erosion in southern
Monterey Bay during this time. The best estimate of
total average yearly mined sand during the intensive
mining years 1940–1984 is 128,000 m
3
/yr, which is
equivalent to approximately 50% of the yearly averaged
Fig. 12. Recession of dune top dune edge at locations 6 km (rectangles)
and 8 km (ellipses), and total amount of sand mined at Marina
operations at locations 14.7–15.3 km (solid line) (see Table 2).
Regression slopes have been calculated separately between 1940s–
1984 during time of intensive sand mining and 1984–2004 after
intensive mining (see Table 1). Uncertainties are indicated by
dimensions of symbols.
57 E.B. Thornton et al. / Marine Geology 229 (2006) 45–58
dune volume loss during this period. Since sand mining
stopped, the erosion rates qualitatively decreased with a
significant (at 95% confidence) decrease south of the
sand mining operations in Sand City but not significant
change at Marina to the north. The alongshore changes
in erosion since the cessation of sand mining are partly
due to almost twice as much sand being mined at Sand
City as compared with Marina. Attempts to determine
average recession rates since the cessation of sand
mining are complicated by severe erosion occurrin
Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
