Address for correspondence: Emma Be

Address for correspondence: Emma Beard, Cancer Research UK Health Behaviour Research Centre, University College London, WC1E 6BP.
E-mail: [e-mail]

Setting Theory is pivotal for optimal performance (Locke
& Lantham, 2004; Locke & Lantham, 1990; Abraham &
Michie, 2008).
We examined whether providing smokers with a personal
monitor for measuring expired-air CO concentrations,
and a clear goal of maintaining smoke intake below
10 ppm at all times, would be a feasiblemethod of achieving
a reduction in smoke intake.COis a colourless, odourless,
and tasteless gas, that combines with haemoglobin in
place of oxygen. It is one of the many compounds produced
by cigarettes and appears to be a reliable measure
of toxin intake (Middleton & Morice, 2000). Long-term
exposure has been associated with a number of chronic
conditions (e.g., Silverstein, 1992; Cheng et al., 2010; Bye
et al., 2008). The development of portable CO monitors
allows for the immediate assessment of toxin intake and is
therefore a reliable method for self-monitoring.
Methods
Participants were recruited following participation in a
study looking at the use of NRT for temporary abstinence
and/or smoking reduction among those unable or
unwilling to quit smoking (Beard et al., in press). Participants
were given a CO monitor and asked to use it
regularly throughout the day for 6 weeks, with the aim of
maintaining their CO reading below 10 ppm (a threshold
representing very light smoking). They were advised to
use nicotine replacement therapy as well, but this was not
provided. There are multiple CO monitors on the market.
The one used in the current study is known as the
COmpactTM Smokerlyzer R  (Bedfont Scientific Ltd). This
was chosen as it is small, easy to use, and is affordable
to smokers. LEDs light up instantly on the screen using
a familiar ‘traffic light’ system, which represents the level
of carbon monoxide —Level 1 (green) 01–06 ppm, Level
2 (orange) 07–10 ppm, level 3 (red) 11–15 ppm, level 4
(red) 16–25 ppm, Level 5 (red) 26–35 ppm, Level 6 (red)
36–50 ppm, level 7 (flashing) 51–60 ppm.
At baseline, cigarette consumption, nicotine dependence,
NRT use, past attempts to quit smoking, difficulty
of these past attempts, motivation to quit and CO levels
were recorded. Participants were also asked if they were
currently attempting to reduce their cigarette consumption,
if they had done so in the past, and if they ever
modified how they smoked their cigarettes. Nicotine dependence
was measured using time to first cigarette of
the day (Fagerstrom, 2003), while motivation to quit by
asking: ‘Which of the following best describes you?’ (a)
I really want to stop smoking and intend to in the next
month, (b) I really want to stop smoking and intend to
in the next 3 months, (c) I really want to stop smoking
but I don’t know when I will, (d) I want to stop smoking
and hope to soon, (e) I want to stop smoking but haven’t
thought about when, (f) I think I should stop smoking but
I don’t really want to, (g) I don’t want to stop smoking,
(h) Don’t know.
During the first 2 weeks, participants were instructed
to record daily their cigarette consumption, usage of the
COmonitor andNRT, averageCOlevels, andwhether they
had attempted to keep their reading below 10 ppm. Participants
were also asked whether they found their CO monitor
helpful and easy to use, and instructed to briefly explain
why. At follow-up, baseline measures were repeated.
Smokers were also asked whether they had attempted to
quit smoking, if yes, how long the quit attempt had lasted,
about their usage of the CO monitors in the previous 4
weeks, and to provide further details of their views and
experiences of using the CO monitors for smoking reduction.
Participants were paid £50 to cover expenses.
Analysis
T test analyses were used to determine whether there was
a significant difference in cigarette consumption at baseline,
during the first 2 weeks, and at the 6-week followup.
Descriptive statistics are given for all other findings.
Smoker’ views about the use of CO monitors for smoking
reduction were coded into six predetermined categories:
(1) difficulties attaining a value of 10 ppm or lower, (2)
difficulties using the monitor, (3) ease of use, (4) effect
on cigarette consumption, (5) effect on motivation to quit
and (6) reasons why they found the monitor helpful.
Results
Ten smokers were recruited; five females and five males,
with an average age of 48.6 years (SD 11.56) and cigarette
consumption of 14.1(SD 6.03) cigarettes per day. Two
were retired, one unemployed and seven in full-timework.
Seven smoked standard cigarettes and four rolled tobacco.
Only two reported that they were currently using NRT.
Three reported smoking within 5 minutes of wakening,
three between 6 and 30 minutes of wakening, and 4 between
31 and 60 minutes of wakening. Two reported that
they really wanted to stop smoking in the next month,
seven that they really wanted to stop smoking but did not
stipulate when, and one smoker that they didn’t want to
but thought they should. All ten had quit smoking at least
once in the past for an average of 15.6 (SD 6.48) weeks,
eight of which reported that they found it difficult to
remain abstinent. Seven of the smokers were currently reducing
their cigarette consumption and seven were modifying
their smoking behaviour. Nine reported that they
had attempted to cut down in the past. Two had a CO
reading of 11–15 ppm, one 16–25 ppm, four 26–35ppm,
two 36–50 ppm and one 51–60 ppm.
Four smokers used NRT during the first couple of
weeks; only two on a regular basis. Over the course of the
first 2 weeks, 79.3% (n = 111/140 responses) of participants
reported that they found the CO monitor helpful,
and 55.7% (n = 78/140 responses) reported that they
found the monitor easy to use. Smokers used the monitor
on average 2.9 (SD 1.49) times per day. Nine smokers
completed the 4-week follow-up. During weeks 2 to 6,
five smokers reported that they had used NRT. Four of the

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Alamat untuk korespondensi: Emma Beard, Cancer Research UK kesehatan perilaku pusat penelitian, Universitas College London, WC1E 6BP.E-mail: [e-mail] teori penting untuk kinerja optimal (Locke& Lantham, 2004; Locke & Lantham, 1990; Abraham &Michie, 2008).Kita akan meneliti apakah menyediakan perokok dengan pribadimonitor untuk mengukur konsentrasi CO kadaluarsa udara,dan tujuan yang jelas mempertahankan asap asupan di bawah ini10 ppm sepanjang waktu, akan feasiblemethod mencapaipengurangan asupan asap.COis berwarna, tidak berbau,dan gas hambar, yang menggabungkan dengan hemoglobin dalamtempat oksigen. Itu adalah salah satu dari banyak senyawa yang diproduksioleh Rokok dan tampaknya menjadi ukuran yang dapat diandalkanasupan racun (Middleton & Morice, 2000). Jangka panjangpaparan telah dikaitkan dengan sejumlah kroniskondisi (misalnya, Silverstein, 1992; Cheng et al., 2010; Dahet al., 2008). Pengembangan portabel CO monitormemungkinkan untuk menilai segera asupan racun danoleh karena itu metode yang dapat diandalkan untuk pemantauan diri.MetodePeserta yang direkrut berikut partisipasi dalamStudi memandang penggunaan NRT untuk sementara pantangdan/atau Rokok pengurangan antara tersebut tidak ataumau berhenti merokok (jenggot et al., pers). Pesertadiberi CO monitor dan diminta untuk menggunakannyasecara teratur sepanjang hari selama 6 minggu, dengan tujuanmempertahankan CO mereka membaca di bawah 10 ppm (ambang batasmewakili Rokok sangat ringan). Mereka dianjurkan untukpenggunaan terapi penggantian nikotin juga, tapi ini bukanlahdisediakan. Ada beberapa CO monitor di pasar.Yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini dikenal sebagaiCOmpactTM Smokerlyzer R (Bedfont ilmiah Ltd). Inidipilih karena kecil, mudah digunakan, dan terjangkauuntuk perokok. LED menyala langsung menggunakan layarsistem akrab 'traffic light', yang mewakili tingkatkarbon monoksida-Level 1 (hijau) 01-06 ppm, tingkat2 (jingga) 07-10 ppm, tingkat 3 (merah) 11-15 ppm, tingkat 4(merah) 16-25 ppm, Level 5 (merah) 26-35 ppm, tingkat 6 (merah)36 – 50 ppm, tingkat 7 (berkedip) 51-60 ppm.Di dasar, konsumsi Rokok, ketergantungan nikotin,Menggunakan NRT, masa lalu mencoba untuk berhenti merokok, kesulitanini melewati upaya, motivasi untuk berhenti dan tingkat COtercatat. Peserta juga ditanya jika merekasaat ini berusaha untuk mengurangi konsumsi Rokok mereka,Jika mereka telah melakukannya di masa lalu, dan jika mereka pernahdimodifikasi bagaimana mereka asap rokok mereka. Nikotin ketergantungandiukur menggunakan waktu untuk Rokok pertama darihari (Fagerstrom, 2003), sementara motivasi untuk berhenti olehbertanya: 'Yang terbaik berikut menggambarkan Anda?' ()Aku benar-benar ingin berhenti merokok dan berniat untuk selanjutnyabulan, (b) aku benar-benar ingin berhenti merokok dan berniat untukdalam waktu 3 bulan, (c) saya benar-benar ingin berhenti merokoktapi aku tidak tahu kapan aku akan, (d) saya ingin berhenti merokokdan berharap untuk segera, (e) saya ingin berhenti merokok tapi belumberpikir tentang Kapan, (f) saya pikir aku harus berhenti merokok tapiAku tidak benar-benar ingin, (g) saya tidak ingin berhenti merokok,(h) tidak tahu.Selama 2 minggu pertama, peserta diperintahkanuntuk merekam setiap hari konsumsi Rokok, penggunaanCOmonitor andNRT, averageCOlevels, andwhether merekatelah berusaha untuk menjaga mereka membaca di bawah 10 ppm. Pesertajuga bertanya apakah mereka menemukan mereka memantau COberguna dan mudah digunakan, dan diinstruksikan untuk menjelaskan secara singkatMengapa. Di tindak lanjut, langkah-langkah dasar yang diulang.Perokok juga ditanya apakah mereka telah berusaha untukBerhenti Merokok, jika ya, berapa lama berhenti upaya telah berlangsung,tentang penggunaannya monitor CO dalam 4 sebelumnyaMinggu, dan untuk memberikan keterangan pandangan mereka lebih lanjut danpengalaman menggunakan monitor CO untuk pengurangan Rokok.Peserta yang membayar £50 untuk menutupi biaya.AnalisisT uji analisis yang digunakan untuk menentukan apakah adaperbedaan yang signifikan dalam Rokok konsumsi pada dasar,selama yang pertama 2 minggu, dan 6-minggu ikutan.Statistik deskriptif diberikan untuk semua temuan lainnya.Perokok ' pandangan tentang penggunaan CO monitor untuk Rokokpengurangan diberi kode menjadi enam kategori yang telah ditetapkan:(1) kesulitan mencapai nilai 10 ppm atau lebih rendah, (2).kesulitan menggunakan monitor, (3) kemudahan penggunaan, efek (4)pada konsumsi Rokok, (5) efek pada motivasi untuk berhentidan (6) alasan mengapa mereka merasa monitor yang berguna.HasilSepuluh perokok direkrut; lima perempuan dan laki-laki lima,dengan usia rata-rata 48.6 tahun (SD 11,56) dan Rokokkonsumsi 14.1(SD 6.03) cigarette per hari. Duaadalah pensiunan, satu menganggur dan tujuh penuh-timework.Tujuh asap rokok standar dan empat tembakau digulung.Hanya dua melaporkan bahwa mereka sedang menggunakan NRT.Tiga dilaporkan Rokok 5 menit dari wakening,tiga antara 6 dan 30 menit dari wakening, dan 4 antara31 dan 60 menit wakening. Dua melaporkan bahwamereka benar-benar ingin berhenti merokok dalam bulan berikutnya,tujuh bahwa mereka benar-benar ingin berhenti merokok tapi tidakmenetapkan Kapan, dan satu perokok yang mereka tidak ingintetapi berpikir mereka seharusnya. Sepuluh semua telah berhenti merokok setidaknyasekali dalam masa lalu untuk rata-rata 15,6 (SD 6,48) Minggudelapan di antaranya melaporkan bahwa mereka merasa sulit untuktetap berpuasa. Tujuh dari para perokok saat ini mengurangikonsumsi Rokok dan tujuh memodifikasiperilaku Rokok mereka. Sembilan melaporkan bahwa merekatelah berusaha untuk mengurangi di masa lalu. Dua mempunyai COmembaca 11-15 ppm, satu 16-25 ppm, empat 26-35ppmdua 36 – 50 ppm dan satu 51-60 ppm.Perokok empat digunakan NRT selama beberapa pertamaMinggu; hanya dua secara teratur. Selamapertama 2 minggu, 79,3% (n = 111/140 tanggapan) pesertadilaporkan bahwa mereka menemukan CO monitor berguna,dan 55,7% (n = 78/140 tanggapan) melaporkan bahwa merekaditemukan monitor mudah digunakan. Perokok digunakan monitorrata-rata 2.9 (SD 1,49) kali per hari. Sembilan perokokmenyelesaikan tindak lanjut 4 minggu. Selama minggu 2 sampai 6,lima perokok melaporkan bahwa mereka telah menggunakan NRT. Empat