he lecithotrophic strategy of development (Reznick et al., 2002) entai terjemahan - he lecithotrophic strategy of development (Reznick et al., 2002) entai Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

he lecithotrophic strategy of devel

he lecithotrophic strategy of development (Reznick et al., 2002) entails the provisioning of embryos with resources from the maternal yolk deposit rather than from a placenta. It allows the extracorporal culture of guppy embryos. After showing that guppy embryos can continue development in culture (Fig. 2), we investigated whether we could grow explanted embryos in culture for the entire period of embryonic development, and whether they would hatch
in vitro. Figure 3 shows the development of embryos explanted at blastodisc stage for 23 subsequent days. The embryonic streak stage was reached on day 2 after explanting (Fig. 3B),
and the optic cup stage, with perceptible heartbeat, on day 3 (Fig. 3C). The yolk portal system became more pronounced between days 3 and 6 (Fig.
3C–F). Eye pigmentation started at day 4 (Fig. 3D). Pigment cells on the head
first appeared between days 7 and 8 (Fig. 3G,H), and they gradually increased in number and size throughout the experiment (Fig. 3G–R). After 13 days in culture, iridophores were
Fig. 3. Embryonic development in vitro.A–U:Embryos explanted at blastodisc stage (A) were cultured as described in the Experimental Procedures section and photographed on each subsequent day (B–U). See text for details. Scale bar500m. 620 MARTYN ET AL. mainly seen on the choroid of the eyes (Fig. 3N–U), and after 14 days they were also observed over the midbrain (Fig. 3P–U). On day 21 to 23, melanophores could be seen in the tail and on the tail fin, which is wrapped around the yolk (Fig. 3S–U). However, after day 19 in culture, the yolk became very heterogeneous in structure and it appeared to contain some large, coalesced oil droplets. A considerable amount of yolk remained after 23 days of culture (Fig. 3U), when the embryo
was still alive but whose development was delayed relative to embryos developing in the follicle (see below). In culture, the development of pigmentation, somites, and appendages was
symmetrical, but heart development revealed obvious differences between
individuals. In general, cultured embryos moved their eyes, tails, and pectoral fins within the vitelline envelope. Although normal morphology often became compromised after more
than 2 weeks in culture, several embryos remained alive for a period of up to 29 days in culture, corresponding to 37 dap, although these individuals failed to completely resorb the yolk and retract the yolk sac. Although embryos developed significantly slower
in vitro than in the ovary, it was impossible to exactly quantify the developmental delay in culture, due to the obvious spread in developmental stage within each batch of eggs (data
not shown). Why embryos could not be cultured for the entire period of their embryonic development remains unclear. Varying the concentration of fetal calf serum in the medium and mimicking a diurnal cycle of dim light did not significantly improve development.
That some individuals survived in vitro for longer than the normal gestational period suggests that survival in vitro is not the limiting factor. Although guppy embryos are considered as completely lecithotrophic (Thibault and Schultz, 1978; Reznick et al.,
2002), we cannot exclude the possibility that specific factors required for normal development are delivered by means of the maternal circulation and, therefore, that these would be
lacking in vitro. Haas-Andela (1976) succeeded in rearingXiphophorusembryos in vitro,
starting at neurulation, and obtained fertile fish. Similar to guppies, Xiphophorus embryos develop more slowly in vitro than in the follicle, andoften fail to retract the yolk sac. Of interest, both survival and yolk sac retraction could be significantly improved by addition of fish-conditioned water to the culture medium and by exposure of fully developed embryos to
conditioned water by means of a dialysis bag (Haas-Andela, 1976). These findings suggest that retraction of the yolk sac may be the most critical step of in vitro culture in both species and that it may require as yet unidentified low molecular weight factors from the mother, which could be contained in or substituted for by the aquarium water. Whereas guppy embryos cultured
from 8 dap onward (blastodisc to beginning early-eyed stage) showed arrested embryonic development, some embryos explanted during late gestation (17 to 21 dap) consumed and internalized the remaining yolk, and became mature and fertile fish (data not shown). When embryos were explanted during the last third of gestation, individuals whose vitelline envelope was removed survived for longer on average. Moreover, swimming embryos occasionally became fertile adults, indicating that positive effects of active movement on gas exchange and waste disposal may exist, indicating that these parameters may need future optimization. Our success in culturing guppy embryos in vitro demonstrates that some of the drawbacks of live bearing fish as objects of early developmental studies can be overcome. Extension of in vitro
culture for the entire gestation period would allow for experimental procedures not normally possible in live bearers, including lineage tracing and genetic manipulations, such as RNA interference or application of morpholino oligonucleotides
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he lecithotrophic strategy of development (Reznick et al., 2002) entails the provisioning of embryos with resources from the maternal yolk deposit rather than from a placenta. It allows the extracorporal culture of guppy embryos. After showing that guppy embryos can continue development in culture (Fig. 2), we investigated whether we could grow explanted embryos in culture for the entire period of embryonic development, and whether they would hatchin vitro. Figure 3 shows the development of embryos explanted at blastodisc stage for 23 subsequent days. The embryonic streak stage was reached on day 2 after explanting (Fig. 3B),and the optic cup stage, with perceptible heartbeat, on day 3 (Fig. 3C). The yolk portal system became more pronounced between days 3 and 6 (Fig.3C–F). Eye pigmentation started at day 4 (Fig. 3D). Pigment cells on the headfirst appeared between days 7 and 8 (Fig. 3G,H), and they gradually increased in number and size throughout the experiment (Fig. 3G–R). After 13 days in culture, iridophores wereFig. 3. Embryonic development in vitro.A–U:Embryos explanted at blastodisc stage (A) were cultured as described in the Experimental Procedures section and photographed on each subsequent day (B–U). See text for details. Scale bar500m. 620 MARTYN ET AL. mainly seen on the choroid of the eyes (Fig. 3N–U), and after 14 days they were also observed over the midbrain (Fig. 3P–U). On day 21 to 23, melanophores could be seen in the tail and on the tail fin, which is wrapped around the yolk (Fig. 3S–U). However, after day 19 in culture, the yolk became very heterogeneous in structure and it appeared to contain some large, coalesced oil droplets. A considerable amount of yolk remained after 23 days of culture (Fig. 3U), when the embryowas still alive but whose development was delayed relative to embryos developing in the follicle (see below). In culture, the development of pigmentation, somites, and appendages wassymmetrical, but heart development revealed obvious differences betweenindividuals. In general, cultured embryos moved their eyes, tails, and pectoral fins within the vitelline envelope. Although normal morphology often became compromised after morethan 2 weeks in culture, several embryos remained alive for a period of up to 29 days in culture, corresponding to 37 dap, although these individuals failed to completely resorb the yolk and retract the yolk sac. Although embryos developed significantly slowerin vitro than in the ovary, it was impossible to exactly quantify the developmental delay in culture, due to the obvious spread in developmental stage within each batch of eggs (datanot shown). Why embryos could not be cultured for the entire period of their embryonic development remains unclear. Varying the concentration of fetal calf serum in the medium and mimicking a diurnal cycle of dim light did not significantly improve development.That some individuals survived in vitro for longer than the normal gestational period suggests that survival in vitro is not the limiting factor. Although guppy embryos are considered as completely lecithotrophic (Thibault and Schultz, 1978; Reznick et al.,2002), we cannot exclude the possibility that specific factors required for normal development are delivered by means of the maternal circulation and, therefore, that these would belacking in vitro. Haas-Andela (1976) succeeded in rearingXiphophorusembryos in vitro,starting at neurulation, and obtained fertile fish. Similar to guppies, Xiphophorus embryos develop more slowly in vitro than in the follicle, andoften fail to retract the yolk sac. Of interest, both survival and yolk sac retraction could be significantly improved by addition of fish-conditioned water to the culture medium and by exposure of fully developed embryos toconditioned water by means of a dialysis bag (Haas-Andela, 1976). These findings suggest that retraction of the yolk sac may be the most critical step of in vitro culture in both species and that it may require as yet unidentified low molecular weight factors from the mother, which could be contained in or substituted for by the aquarium water. Whereas guppy embryos culturedfrom 8 dap onward (blastodisc to beginning early-eyed stage) showed arrested embryonic development, some embryos explanted during late gestation (17 to 21 dap) consumed and internalized the remaining yolk, and became mature and fertile fish (data not shown). When embryos were explanted during the last third of gestation, individuals whose vitelline envelope was removed survived for longer on average. Moreover, swimming embryos occasionally became fertile adults, indicating that positive effects of active movement on gas exchange and waste disposal may exist, indicating that these parameters may need future optimization. Our success in culturing guppy embryos in vitro demonstrates that some of the drawbacks of live bearing fish as objects of early developmental studies can be overcome. Extension of in vitroculture for the entire gestation period would allow for experimental procedures not normally possible in live bearers, including lineage tracing and genetic manipulations, such as RNA interference or application of morpholino oligonucleotides
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ia lecithotrophic strategi pembangunan (Reznick et al., 2002) memerlukan penyediaan embrio dengan sumber daya dari deposit kuning ibu bukan dari plasenta. Hal ini memungkinkan budaya extracorporal embrio guppy. Setelah menunjukkan bahwa embrio guppy dapat melanjutkan pembangunan dalam budaya (Gbr. 2), kami menyelidiki apakah kita bisa tumbuh embrio explanted dalam budaya untuk seluruh periode perkembangan embrio, dan apakah mereka akan menetas
in vitro. Gambar 3 menunjukkan perkembangan embrio explanted pada tahap blastodisc selama 23 hari berikutnya. Tahap beruntun embrio dicapai pada hari 2 setelah explanting (Gambar. 3B),
dan tahap cangkir optik, dengan detak jantung jelas, pada hari ke 3 (Gambar. 3C). Kuning sistem portal menjadi lebih jelas antara hari 3 dan 6 (Gambar.
3C-F). Pigmentasi mata dimulai pada hari 4 (Gambar. 3D). Sel pigmen di kepala
pertama muncul antara hari 7 dan 8 (Gambar. 3G, H), dan mereka secara bertahap meningkat dalam jumlah dan ukuran seluruh percobaan (Gambar. 3G-R). Setelah 13 hari dalam budaya, iridophores yang
Gambar. 3. pengembangan embrio di vitro.A-U: Embrio explanted pada tahap blastodisc (A) dikultur seperti yang dijelaskan di bagian Prosedur Eksperimental dan difoto pada setiap hari berikutnya (B-U). Lihat teks untuk rincian. Skala bar? 500? M. 620 MARTYN ET AL. terutama terlihat pada koroid mata (Gambar. 3N-U), dan setelah 14 hari mereka juga diamati selama otak tengah (Gambar. 3P-U). Pada hari 21-23, melanophores bisa dilihat di bagian ekor dan pada sirip ekor, yang melilit kuning (Gambar. 3S-U). Namun, setelah hari 19 dalam budaya, kuning telur menjadi sangat heterogen dalam struktur dan ternyata mengandung beberapa besar, tetesan minyak berkoalisi. Sejumlah besar kuning tetap setelah 23 hari dari budaya (Gambar. 3U), ketika embrio
masih hidup tapi yang perkembangannya tertunda relatif terhadap embrio berkembang dalam folikel (lihat di bawah). Dalam budaya, pengembangan pigmentasi, somit, dan pelengkap adalah
simetris, tetapi pengembangan jantung menunjukkan perbedaan yang jelas antara
individu. Secara umum, embrio berbudaya pindah mata mereka, ekor, dan sirip dada dalam amplop vitelline. Meskipun morfologi normal sering menjadi terganggu setelah lebih
dari 2 minggu dalam budaya, beberapa embrio tetap hidup untuk jangka waktu hingga 29 hari dalam budaya, sesuai dengan 37 hst, meskipun orang-orang gagal untuk sepenuhnya menyerap kuning telur dan menarik kuning telur. Meskipun embrio berkembang secara signifikan lebih lambat
in vitro daripada di ovarium, itu tidak mungkin untuk persis mengukur keterlambatan perkembangan dalam budaya, karena penyebaran jelas dalam tahap perkembangan dalam setiap batch telur (data
tidak ditampilkan). Mengapa embrio tidak bisa dibudidayakan untuk seluruh periode perkembangan embrio mereka masih belum jelas. Memvariasikan konsentrasi serum janin anak sapi di media dan meniru siklus diurnal cahaya redup tidak secara signifikan meningkatkan pembangunan.
Itu beberapa individu selamat in vitro selama lebih dari periode kehamilan yang normal menunjukkan bahwa kelangsungan hidup in vitro bukan faktor pembatas. Meskipun embrio guppy dianggap sebagai benar-benar lecithotrophic (Thibault dan Schultz, 1978;. Reznick et al,
2002), kita tidak bisa mengesampingkan kemungkinan bahwa faktor khusus yang diperlukan untuk perkembangan normal yang disampaikan dengan cara sirkulasi ibu dan, karena itu, bahwa ini akan menjadi
kurang dalam vitro. Haas-Andela (1976) berhasil rearingXiphophorusembryos in vitro,
mulai neurulasi, dan memperoleh ikan subur. Mirip dengan guppies, Xiphophorus embrio berkembang lebih lambat in vitro daripada di folikel, andoften gagal untuk menarik kembali kantung kuning telur. Yang menarik, baik kelangsungan hidup dan kuning retraksi kantung dapat secara signifikan ditingkatkan dengan penambahan air-ikan dikondisikan untuk media kultur dan oleh paparan dari embrio sepenuhnya dikembangkan untuk
air dikondisikan dengan cara kantong dialisis (Haas-Andela, 1976). Temuan ini menunjukkan bahwa pencabutan dari kuning telur mungkin langkah yang paling penting dari kultur in vitro pada kedua spesies dan bahwa hal itu mungkin memerlukan faktor berat badan yang belum teridentifikasi molekul rendah dari ibu, yang bisa terkandung dalam atau digantikan oleh air akuarium . Sedangkan embrio guppy berbudaya
dari 8 dap seterusnya (blastodisc untuk mulai tahap awal bermata) menunjukkan ditangkap perkembangan embrio, beberapa embrio explanted selama akhir kehamilan (17-21 hst) dikonsumsi dan diinternalisasi kuning yang tersisa, dan menjadi ikan matang dan subur (data tidak ditunjukkan). Ketika embrio explanted selama sepertiga terakhir kehamilan, individu yang amplop vitelline telah dihapus bertahan lebih lama rata-rata. Selain itu, embrio berenang sesekali menjadi orang dewasa yang subur, yang menunjukkan bahwa efek positif dari gerakan aktif pada pertukaran gas dan pembuangan limbah mungkin ada, menunjukkan bahwa parameter ini mungkin perlu optimasi masa depan. Keberhasilan kami dalam kultur embrio guppy in vitro menunjukkan bahwa beberapa kelemahan ikan bantalan hidup sebagai objek studi perkembangan awal dapat diatasi. Perpanjangan in vitro
kultur untuk periode kehamilan seluruh akan memungkinkan untuk prosedur eksperimental biasanya tidak mungkin dalam pembawa hidup, termasuk keturunan pelacakan dan manipulasi genetik, seperti interferensi RNA atau aplikasi oligonukleotida morfolino
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