III. STRATIGRAPHYIt is not usually

III. STRATIGRAPHY
It is not usually possible to excavate vertical cross sections under water, except when working in thick mud; therefore, stratigraphy can be difficult to record under water. In sand, silt, or gravel areas it is impossible to excavate
in vertical sections, so excavation strategy will need to be carefully thought out if stratigraphy is to be recorded. The merits of working over a large area and excavating systematically downward have to be considered in relation to the difficulty of doing this evenly over the whole area. The problem with working in small grid squares (about 2m2), as discussed previously, is that the excavation ends up with a conical hole or pit, simply because the sand or silt will not hold any appreciable wall.Working along a front enables systematic recording and some degree of stratigraphy can
be observed, although inevitably the working face will have slippage. The methods used will depend on the circumstances and the correct choice will only come with experience. Alternatively, careful excavation of layers is a
possibility. With the judicious use of excavation tools, the excavator can remove layers over quite large areas, so for a start, the sterile overburden can be removed in one stage.
In many cases there is no stratigraphy, but rather a sterile overburden, followed by an archaeological layer, followed by a sterile layer. This is not always the case, and excavators must be cautious not to miss the subtle changes. Particularly, inside ship structures, it is possible to observe different stratigraphical layers trapped in compartments or on decks representing different phases of the wreck disintegration process. Additionally, when changes are observed, these are often difficult to record because of problems in establishing vertical datum points. This can be an extremely difficult problem and bubble tubes or depth-measuring devices will have to be used to make these measurements. These problems are discussed in Chapter 4.
It is additionally worth noting that under water, archaeological chronology can have a different significance than that for an archaeological site on land. In the excavation of a shipwreck, stratigraphy usually relates to a single event in time. Consequently, the stratigraphy may have little or no temporal significance, but it may have a particular spatial significance.Thus a shipwreck lying upright on the seabed will disintegrate in time. Any thing lying on top of another is determined by a spatial relationship rather than a temporal one. If the ship settled upright on the bottom, material would generally collapse downward and outward. If a ship sank heeled over on its port side, the guns (for example) on the starboard side would lie on top of the port guns after the wreck collapsed. By interpreting the events subsequent to the wreck, the excavator can thus determine more information about the ship. The unusual circumstance of a wreck, with the immediacy of the event, makes the spatial aspect of the site of much greater significance than the temporal aspect.This does not mean that one should ignore stratigraphy. The point is simply that the vertical component may be of no more significance than the horizontal component.As noted above, localized stratigraphy inside the structure of a shipwreck can have great significance.
Stratigraphy has played an essential part in the excavation of a number of shipwreck sites. In the IJsselmeer polder, sites can be dated using stratigraphical evidence. Because the vessels sank at a particular point in time archaeologists can identify the stratigraphy of the IJsselmeer and thus date the event (Reinders, 1982; Reinders et al., 1978, 1984). Similar approaches have been made on the Mary Rose (Marsden, 2003) and the HMS Pandora
(Gesner, 2000). Likewise, inundated land sites have an essential stratigraphical component. In the past, stratigraphy on underwater archaeological sites has often been ignored or not properly examined. It is essential in planning modern underwater archaeological excavation that the question of stratigraphy is taken into consideration. It is advisable to thoroughly understand the implications of stratigraphy on a wreck site as it will have quite a different significance to that of a land archaeological site.
Many other new and interesting underwater excavation techniques have been pioneered in the last few years. Some of these have been standard on land excavations for many years, but as the practice of maritime archaeology improves, so the technology moves with the times. On the Amsterdam project (Gawronski, 1986, 1987) the excavation work has developed into a multifaceted scientific study taking into account a wide variety of excavation strategies. Likewise, the examination of the mud in a late Saxon logboat found at Clapton shows the extent of the information that can be recovered using suitable excavation strategies (Marsden, 1989).

IV. COMMUNICATION
Communication between staff during an archaeological excavation is vital.Without good communication, excavations can become inefficient and artifacts and data can be lost. First, the excavation director must keep everyone
informed of what is happening. This should be done on a day-to-day basis, either at a morning or evening meeting. It is the director’s responsibility to ensure that the overall excavation strategy is being maintained and advise everyone when there is need for a change or where the excavation is working particularly well. This rapport with staff members is essential.
How this is handled will depend on the individual, but it is important for the excavation that everyone has a clear idea of what they are doing and why (see Chapter 2, Section V).
How to maintain continuity on a site is one excavation problem that is often difficult to resolve. If there are a number of different people excavating the same area then achieving continuity can be an exacting task, particularly if it is necessary to spend time on a decompression stop.There are several possibilities and these will depend on the type of site. In shallow water (

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

III. STRATIGRAPHYIt is not usually possible to excavate vertical cross sections under water, except when working in thick mud; therefore, stratigraphy can be difficult to record under water. In sand, silt, or gravel areas it is impossible to excavatein vertical sections, so excavation strategy will need to be carefully thought out if stratigraphy is to be recorded. The merits of working over a large area and excavating systematically downward have to be considered in relation to the difficulty of doing this evenly over the whole area. The problem with working in small grid squares (about 2m2), as discussed previously, is that the excavation ends up with a conical hole or pit, simply because the sand or silt will not hold any appreciable wall.Working along a front enables systematic recording and some degree of stratigraphy canbe observed, although inevitably the working face will have slippage. The methods used will depend on the circumstances and the correct choice will only come with experience. Alternatively, careful excavation of layers is apossibility. With the judicious use of excavation tools, the excavator can remove layers over quite large areas, so for a start, the sterile overburden can be removed in one stage.In many cases there is no stratigraphy, but rather a sterile overburden, followed by an archaeological layer, followed by a sterile layer. This is not always the case, and excavators must be cautious not to miss the subtle changes. Particularly, inside ship structures, it is possible to observe different stratigraphical layers trapped in compartments or on decks representing different phases of the wreck disintegration process. Additionally, when changes are observed, these are often difficult to record because of problems in establishing vertical datum points. This can be an extremely difficult problem and bubble tubes or depth-measuring devices will have to be used to make these measurements. These problems are discussed in Chapter 4.It is additionally worth noting that under water, archaeological chronology can have a different significance than that for an archaeological site on land. In the excavation of a shipwreck, stratigraphy usually relates to a single event in time. Consequently, the stratigraphy may have little or no temporal significance, but it may have a particular spatial significance.Thus a shipwreck lying upright on the seabed will disintegrate in time. Any thing lying on top of another is determined by a spatial relationship rather than a temporal one. If the ship settled upright on the bottom, material would generally collapse downward and outward. If a ship sank heeled over on its port side, the guns (for example) on the starboard side would lie on top of the port guns after the wreck collapsed. By interpreting the events subsequent to the wreck, the excavator can thus determine more information about the ship. The unusual circumstance of a wreck, with the immediacy of the event, makes the spatial aspect of the site of much greater significance than the temporal aspect.This does not mean that one should ignore stratigraphy. The point is simply that the vertical component may be of no more significance than the horizontal component.As noted above, localized stratigraphy inside the structure of a shipwreck can have great significance.Stratigraphy has played an essential part in the excavation of a number of shipwreck sites. In the IJsselmeer polder, sites can be dated using stratigraphical evidence. Because the vessels sank at a particular point in time archaeologists can identify the stratigraphy of the IJsselmeer and thus date the event (Reinders, 1982; Reinders et al., 1978, 1984). Similar approaches have been made on the Mary Rose (Marsden, 2003) and the HMS Pandora(Gesner, 2000). Likewise, inundated land sites have an essential stratigraphical component. In the past, stratigraphy on underwater archaeological sites has often been ignored or not properly examined. It is essential in planning modern underwater archaeological excavation that the question of stratigraphy is taken into consideration. It is advisable to thoroughly understand the implications of stratigraphy on a wreck site as it will have quite a different significance to that of a land archaeological site.Many other new and interesting underwater excavation techniques have been pioneered in the last few years. Some of these have been standard on land excavations for many years, but as the practice of maritime archaeology improves, so the technology moves with the times. On the Amsterdam project (Gawronski, 1986, 1987) the excavation work has developed into a multifaceted scientific study taking into account a wide variety of excavation strategies. Likewise, the examination of the mud in a late Saxon logboat found at Clapton shows the extent of the information that can be recovered using suitable excavation strategies (Marsden, 1989).IV. COMMUNICATIONCommunication between staff during an archaeological excavation is vital.Without good communication, excavations can become inefficient and artifacts and data can be lost. First, the excavation director must keep everyoneinformed of what is happening. This should be done on a day-to-day basis, either at a morning or evening meeting. It is the director’s responsibility to ensure that the overall excavation strategy is being maintained and advise everyone when there is need for a change or where the excavation is working particularly well. This rapport with staff members is essential.How this is handled will depend on the individual, but it is important for the excavation that everyone has a clear idea of what they are doing and why (see Chapter 2, Section V).How to maintain continuity on a site is one excavation problem that is often difficult to resolve. If there are a number of different people excavating the same area then achieving continuity can be an exacting task, particularly if it is necessary to spend time on a decompression stop.There are several possibilities and these will depend on the type of site. In shallow water (<10 m), excavation can continue for considerable periods of time without interruption with cold or fatigue the limiting factors. Given that time will not be a limitation, excavators can always work in their own particular area, or a number of people can be assigned to a particular area.Continuity can be maintained by ensuring that at the changeover the next team is aware of what has happened in that area. On deeper sites, there will probably be a period on a decompression stop. During this time, there willbe the impending problem of deciding whether to send the next team in straightaway or whether to wait so that they can be briefed. Because of the time constraints on deep-water sites, it will usually be necessary to send the next team in. Therefore, it is worth considering organizing the excavation so that successive teams work in alternate areas.Thus team A works in area 1; while they are decompressing on the stop, team B goes in and works area 2.When team A comes out of the water, they brief team C, which goes in and works in area 1 when team B is on the stop. Some variation of this type of system can be devised for any site, and it does ensure the continual awareness of what is happening in an area. Alternatively, diver-to-surface communication can be used (see next section).A very useful method of communication was pioneered by Bass on a series of excavations in Turkey (Bass and Katzev, 1968). It consists of an underwater booth made out of a dome of clear Perspex or Plexiglas is anchored to the seabed and filled with air (Figure 9.8). This served as a refuge in case of emergency and as a place where the person working under water could communicate with a partner. In addition, a telephone was installed in the booth enabling the diver to communicate with the surface and obtain advice and exchange information.Self-contained diver communications systems present a real advantage.Whereas once the encumbrance of a communication cable between the diver and the surface made the system unattractive, there are now a number of interesting alternatives. First, however, it will be essential to adopt a fullface mask (or a “voice box”) to enable clear voice recognition. Full face masks range from the simple to the complex (simple like the Aga and Scubapro to the complex Ultralight) and today these systems are more common in the field of underwater archaeology because of occupational health and safety considerations.

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AKU AKU AKU. Stratigrafi
Hal ini biasanya tidak mungkin untuk menggali penampang vertikal di bawah air, kecuali ketika bekerja di lumpur tebal; Oleh karena itu, stratigrafi bisa sulit untuk merekam di bawah air. Di pasir, lumpur, atau area kerikil tidak mungkin untuk menggali
di bagian vertikal, sehingga strategi penggalian perlu hati-hati dipikirkan jika stratigrafi yang akan direkam. Manfaat bekerja di wilayah yang luas dan penggalian sistematis bawah harus dipertimbangkan dalam kaitannya dengan kesulitan melakukan hal ini secara merata di seluruh daerah. Masalah dengan bekerja di kotak kotak kecil (sekitar 2m2), seperti yang dibahas sebelumnya, adalah bahwa penggalian berakhir dengan lubang kerucut atau lubang, hanya karena pasir atau lumpur tidak akan memegang wall.Working cukup sepanjang front memungkinkan perekaman sistematis dan beberapa derajat stratigrafi dapat
diamati, meskipun pasti wajah bekerja akan memiliki slip. Metode yang digunakan akan tergantung pada keadaan dan pilihan yang tepat hanya akan datang dengan pengalaman. Atau, penggalian hati-hati lapisan adalah
kemungkinan. Dengan bijaksana penggunaan alat penggalian, excavator dapat menghilangkan lapisan atas wilayah yang cukup luas, sehingga untuk memulai, overburden steril dapat dihapus dalam satu panggung.
Dalam banyak kasus tidak ada stratigrafi, melainkan overburden steril, diikuti oleh Lapisan arkeologi, diikuti oleh lapisan steril. Hal ini tidak selalu terjadi, dan excavator harus berhati-hati untuk tidak melewatkan perubahan halus. Khususnya, dalam struktur kapal, adalah mungkin untuk mengamati lapisan stratigrafi yang berbeda terjebak dalam kompartemen atau di geladak yang mewakili fase yang berbeda dari proses kecelakaan disintegrasi. Selain itu, jika ada perubahan diamati, ini sering sulit untuk catatan karena masalah dalam membangun poin datum vertikal. Ini bisa menjadi masalah dan gelembung sangat sulit tabung atau perangkat kedalaman pengukuran harus digunakan untuk membuat pengukuran ini. Masalah-masalah ini dibahas dalam Bab 4.
Hal ini tambahan perlu dicatat bahwa di bawah air, kronologi arkeologi dapat memiliki makna yang berbeda dari itu untuk sebuah situs arkeologi di darat. Dalam penggalian kapal karam, stratigrafi biasanya berhubungan dengan peristiwa tunggal dalam waktu. Akibatnya, stratigrafi mungkin memiliki sedikit atau tidak ada signifikansi temporal, tetapi mungkin memiliki significance.Thus spasial khususnya kapal karam berbaring tegak di dasar laut akan hancur dalam waktu. Setiap hal berbaring di atas yang lain ditentukan oleh hubungan spasial daripada satu temporal. Jika kapal menetap tegak di bagian bawah, material akan runtuh ke bawah dan ke luar. Jika kapal karam bertumit lebih di sisi pelabuhan, senjata (misalnya) di sisi kanan akan berbaring di atas senjata pelabuhan setelah kecelakaan runtuh. Dengan menafsirkan kejadian setelah kecelakaan, excavator sehingga dapat menentukan informasi lebih lanjut tentang kapal. Keadaan yang tidak biasa dari kecelakaan, dengan kedekatan acara, membuat aspek spasial situs signifikansi jauh lebih besar daripada temporal aspect.This tidak berarti bahwa seseorang harus mengabaikan stratigrafi. Intinya hanya bahwa komponen vertikal mungkin tidak lebih penting daripada component.As horisontal disebutkan di atas, stratigrafi lokal dalam struktur kapal karam dapat memiliki arti besar.
Stratigrafi telah memainkan bagian penting dalam penggalian sejumlah kapal karam situs. Dalam polder IJsselmeer, situs dapat tanggal dengan menggunakan bukti stratigrafi. Karena kapal tenggelam pada titik tertentu dalam waktu arkeolog dapat mengidentifikasi stratigrafi dari IJsselmeer dan dengan demikian tanggal acara (Reinders, 1982;. Reinders et al, 1978, 1984). Pendekatan serupa telah dilakukan di Mary Rose (Marsden, 2003) dan HMS Pandora
(Gesner, 2000). Demikian juga, situs tanah tergenang memiliki komponen stratigrafi penting. Di masa lalu, stratigrafi di situs arkeologi bawah air sering diabaikan atau tidak diperiksa dengan benar. Hal ini penting dalam perencanaan penggalian arkeologi bawah air modern yang pertanyaan stratigrafi dipertimbangkan. Dianjurkan untuk benar-benar memahami implikasi dari stratigrafi di situs kecelakaan karena akan memiliki cukup signifikan berbeda dengan situs arkeologi tanah.
Banyak teknik penggalian bawah laut yang baru dan menarik lainnya telah dirintis dalam beberapa tahun terakhir. Beberapa di antaranya telah standar pada penggalian tanah selama bertahun-tahun, tetapi sebagai praktek arkeologi maritim membaik, sehingga teknologi bergerak dengan waktu. Pada proyek Amsterdam (Gawronski, 1986, 1987) karya penggalian telah berkembang menjadi sebuah penelitian ilmiah yang beragam dengan mempertimbangkan berbagai strategi penggalian. Demikian juga, pemeriksaan lumpur di Saxon akhir logboat ditemukan di Clapton menunjukkan sejauh mana informasi yang dapat dipulihkan dengan menggunakan strategi penggalian yang cocok (Marsden, 1989). IV. KOMUNIKASI Komunikasi antara staf selama penggalian arkeologi adalah komunikasi vital.Without baik, penggalian bisa menjadi tidak efisien dan artefak dan data bisa hilang. Pertama, direktur penggalian harus menjaga semua orang diberitahu tentang apa yang terjadi. Hal ini harus dilakukan pada sehari-hari, baik pada pertemuan pagi atau malam. Ini adalah tanggung jawab direktur untuk memastikan bahwa strategi penggalian keseluruhan sedang dipertahankan dan menyarankan semua orang ketika ada kebutuhan untuk perubahan atau di mana penggalian bekerja sangat baik. Hubungan ini dengan anggota staf sangat penting. Bagaimana ini ditangani akan tergantung pada individu, tetapi penting untuk penggalian bahwa setiap orang memiliki gagasan yang jelas tentang apa yang mereka lakukan dan mengapa (lihat Bab 2, Bagian V). Bagaimana menjaga kontinuitas di situs adalah salah satu masalah penggalian yang seringkali sulit untuk menyelesaikan. Jika ada beberapa orang yang berbeda menggali daerah yang sama kemudian mencapai kontinuitas bisa menjadi tugas yang menuntut, terutama jika perlu untuk menghabiskan waktu pada dekompresi stop.There adalah beberapa kemungkinan dan ini akan tergantung pada jenis situs. Di perairan dangkal (<10 m), penggalian bisa berlanjut selama waktu yang cukup lama tanpa gangguan dengan faktor pembatas dingin atau kelelahan. Mengingat waktu itu tidak akan keterbatasan, excavator selalu dapat bekerja di daerah khusus mereka sendiri, atau sejumlah orang dapat ditugaskan ke daerah tertentu. Kontinuitas dapat dipertahankan dengan memastikan bahwa pergantian tersebut tim berikutnya adalah menyadari apa yang telah terjadi di daerah itu. Di situs yang lebih dalam, mungkin akan ada masa di berhenti dekompresi. Selama ini, ada akan menjadi masalah yang akan datang dari memutuskan apakah akan mengirim tim berikutnya dalam langsung atau apakah menunggu sehingga mereka dapat diberikan pengarahan. Karena kendala waktu di situs dalam air, biasanya akan diperlukan untuk mengirim tim berikutnya Oleh karena itu, ada baiknya mempertimbangkan mengorganisir penggalian sehingga tim berturut-turut bekerja dalam tim areas.Thus alternatif A bekerja di daerah 1.; sementara mereka dekompresi pada berhenti, tim B masuk dan bekerja daerah tim 2.Pada A keluar dari air, mereka singkat tim C, yang masuk dan bekerja di daerah 1 ketika tim B pada berhenti. Beberapa variasi jenis sistem dapat dirancang untuk situs apapun, dan itu tidak menjamin kesadaran terus-menerus tentang apa yang terjadi di suatu daerah. Atau, komunikasi diver-ke-permukaan dapat digunakan (lihat bagian berikutnya). Sebuah metode yang sangat berguna komunikasi dipelopori oleh Bass pada serangkaian penggalian di Turki (Bass dan Katzev, 1968). Ini terdiri dari sebuah bilik bawah air terbuat dari kubah yang jelas Perspex atau kaca berlabuh ke dasar laut dan diisi dengan udara (Gambar 9.8). Ini menjabat sebagai tempat perlindungan dalam keadaan darurat dan sebagai tempat di mana orang yang bekerja di bawah air bisa berkomunikasi dengan pasangan. Selain itu, telepon dipasang di bilik memungkinkan penyelam untuk berkomunikasi dengan permukaan dan mendapatkan nasihat dan pertukaran informasi. sistem mandiri komunikasi penyelam menyajikan keuntungan nyata. Sedangkan setelah beban dari kabel komunikasi antara penyelam dan permukaan membuat sistem tidak menarik, sekarang ada sejumlah alternatif yang menarik. Pertama, bagaimanapun, akan menjadi penting untuk mengadopsi penuh masker wajah (atau "kotak suara") untuk mengaktifkan pengenalan suara yang jelas. Masker wajah penuh berkisar dari yang sederhana sampai yang kompleks (sederhana seperti Aga dan Scubapro ke Ultralight kompleks) dan hari ini sistem ini lebih sering terjadi pada bidang arkeologi bawah air karena pertimbangan kesehatan dan keselamatan kerja.