Patterns of Responding on Ratio and

Patterns of Responding on Ratio and Interval Schedules
Each of these schedules produces a characteristic pattern of responding, as revealed by the cumulative record. Here I describe each pattern and offer some theoretical explanations for those patterns.
Fixed Ratio
Responses occur at a high rate and usually without significant pauses while the subject completes the fixed ratio requirement (the ratio run. On reinforcer delivery, the subject does not immediately resume responding, producing the post-reinforcement pause. The cumulative record resembles a set of stair steps, with alternating runs (steeply sloped lines) and pauses (horizontal lines). The post-reinforcement pauses increase in length as the ratio size is made larger.
Current evidence suggests that the post-reinforcement pauses occur because of the delay between the resumption of responding and eventual delivery of the reinforcer. With high ratios this delay can be considerable. Delay of reinforcement is known to weaken the effect of reinforcer delivery on the probability of the response. Following reinforcer delivery, the subject has the option of initiating a new ratio run or engaging in some other activity, which may provide its own inherent, immediate reinforcement. Because of the delay between initiating a ratio run and receiving the reinforcer, this activity may not be as attractive as some others, so the subject does these others first, creating the post-reinforcement pause.
As for the ratio run, it is generally true of ratio schedules that higher response rates yield higer rates of reinforcement. This builds in a positive feedback loop that tends to drive response rates to the highest levels that the subject can comfortably sustain.
Variable Ratio
Variable ratio schedules tend to sustain high rates of responding, with little evidence of pausing, other than the time required to retrieve the reinforcer (if necessary). The cumulative record is a steeply angled line with occasional "blips" marking the moments when the reinforcer was delivered.
The absence of significant post-reinforcement pauses is a striking feature of variable ratio schedules, given their ubiquity on fixed ratio schedules. The lack of pauses appears to be due to the fact that occasionally even the very first response or two after reinforcement will yeild another reinforcer, due to the schedule's inclusion of a few very low ratios among the variable ratio sizes provided. Consequently, initiation of a new ratio run is sometimes strongly reinforced by nearly immediate reinforcer delivery, so that this behavior remains a relatively high-probability one even right after completion of the previous ratio. The steeply rising cumulative record is due both to the elimination of pauses and, as in fixed ratio schedules, to the built-in direct relationship between rate of response and rate of reinforcement.
Fixed Interval
The cumulative record for fixed-interval responding can closely resemble that of the fixed ratio. However, usually the transition from non-responding (following reinforcement) to high-rate responding (near the end of the fixed interval) has the form of a curve rather than a sudden jump from flat to steeply rising. The beginning of the rise usually occurs at a particular percentage of time into the interval, such as just past half-way into the interval, regardless of the actual size of the interval in seconds. The maximum rate of responding usually occurs just as the interval ends, guaranteeing that a response will occur almost immediately after the interval ends. (Remember, on fixed interval schedules, it is only the first response after the interval ends that produces the reinforcer!) This pattern of gradual acceleration of responding from beginning to end of each interval produces a fluted or "scalloped" pattern, which has been labeled the fixed interval scallop.
Patterns of Responding on Ratio and Interval Schedules
Each of these schedules produces a characteristic pattern of responding, as revealed by the cumulative record. Here I describe each pattern and offer some theoretical explanations for those patterns.
Fixed Ratio
Responses occur at a high rate and usually without significant pauses while the subject completes the fixed ratio requirement (the ratio run. On reinforcer delivery, the subject does not immediately resume responding, producing the post-reinforcement pause. The cumulative record resembles a set of stair steps, with alternating runs (steeply sloped lines) and pauses (horizontal lines). The post-reinforcement pauses increase in length as the ratio size is made larger.
Current evidence suggests that the post-reinforcement pauses occur because of the delay between the resumption of responding and eventual delivery of the reinforcer. With high ratios this delay can be considerable. Delay of reinforcement is known to weaken the effect of reinforcer delivery on the probability of the response. Following reinforcer delivery, the subject has the option of initiating a new ratio run or engaging in some other activity, which may provide its own inherent, immediate reinforcement. Because of the delay between initiating a ratio run and receiving the reinforcer, this activity may not be as attractive as some others, so the subject does these others first, creating the post-reinforcement pause.
As for the ratio run, it is generally true of ratio schedules that higher response rates yield higer rates of reinforcement. This builds in a positive feedback loop that tends to drive response rates to the highest levels that the subject can comfortably sustain.
Variable Ratio
Variable ratio schedules tend to sustain high rates of responding, with little evidence of pausing, other than the time required to retrieve the reinforcer (if necessary). The cumulative record is a steeply angled line with occasional "blips" marking the moments when the reinforcer was delivered.
The absence of significant post-reinforcement pauses is a striking feature of variable ratio schedules, given their ubiquity on fixed ratio schedules. The lack of pauses appears to be due to the fact that occasionally even the very first response or two after reinforcement will yeild another reinforcer, due to the schedule's inclusion of a few very low ratios among the variable ratio sizes provided. Consequently, initiation of a new ratio run is sometimes strongly reinforced by nearly immediate reinforcer delivery, so that this behavior remains a relatively high-probability one even right after completion of the previous ratio. The steeply rising cumulative record is due both to the elimination of pauses and, as in fixed ratio schedules, to the built-in direct relationship between rate of response and rate of reinforcement.
Fixed Interval
The cumulative record for fixed-interval responding can closely resemble that of the fixed ratio. However, usually the transition from non-responding (following reinforcement) to high-rate responding (near the end of the fixed interval) has the form of a curve rather than a sudden jump from flat to steeply rising. The beginning of the rise usually occurs at a particular percentage of time into the interval, such as just past half-way into the interval, regardless of the actual size of the interval in seconds. The maximum rate of responding usually occurs just as the interval ends, guaranteeing that a response will occur almost immediately after the interval ends. (Remember, on fixed interval schedules, it is only the first response after the interval ends that produces the reinforcer!) This pattern of gradual acceleration of responding from beginning to end of each interval produces a fluted or "scalloped" pattern, which has been labeled the fixed interval scallop.

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

Pola merespons pada rasio dan Interval jadwalMasing-masing jadwal tersebut menghasilkan pola khas menjawab, seperti yang diungkapkan oleh catatan kumulatif. Di sini saya menjelaskan masing-masing pola dan menawarkan penjelasan teoritis untuk pola tersebut. Rasio tetapTanggapan terjadi pada tingkat tinggi dan biasanya tanpa jeda signifikan sementara subjek melengkapi persyaratan tetap rasio (rasio menjalankan. Pada pengiriman reinforcer, subjek tidak segera melanjutkan menanggapi, memproduksi jeda pasca penguatan. Catatan kumulatif menyerupai seperangkat tangga, dengan bolak-balik berjalan (tajam mempunyai kemiringan garis) dan berhenti (garis horizontal). Peningkatan pasca penguatan bersela panjang seperti ukuran rasio dibuat lebih besar. Bukti saat ini menunjukkan bahwa berhenti pasca penguatan terjadi karena penundaan antara dimulainya menanggapi dan akhirnya pengiriman reinforcer. Dengan tinggi rasio penundaan ini dapat cukup. Keterlambatan penguatan dikenal untuk melemahkan efek reinforcer pengiriman pada probabilitas respon. Setelah pengiriman reinforcer, subjek memiliki pilihan untuk memulai lari rasio baru atau terlibat dalam beberapa kegiatan lainnya, yang mungkin memberikan penguatan sendiri melekat, segera. Karena penundaan antara memulai rasio menjalankan dan menerima reinforcer, kegiatan ini mungkin tidak semenarik beberapa orang lain, sehingga subjek tidak ini orang lain pertama, menciptakan penguatan pasca jeda. As for the ratio run, it is generally true of ratio schedules that higher response rates yield higer rates of reinforcement. This builds in a positive feedback loop that tends to drive response rates to the highest levels that the subject can comfortably sustain. Variable RatioVariable ratio schedules tend to sustain high rates of responding, with little evidence of pausing, other than the time required to retrieve the reinforcer (if necessary). The cumulative record is a steeply angled line with occasional "blips" marking the moments when the reinforcer was delivered. The absence of significant post-reinforcement pauses is a striking feature of variable ratio schedules, given their ubiquity on fixed ratio schedules. The lack of pauses appears to be due to the fact that occasionally even the very first response or two after reinforcement will yeild another reinforcer, due to the schedule's inclusion of a few very low ratios among the variable ratio sizes provided. Consequently, initiation of a new ratio run is sometimes strongly reinforced by nearly immediate reinforcer delivery, so that this behavior remains a relatively high-probability one even right after completion of the previous ratio. The steeply rising cumulative record is due both to the elimination of pauses and, as in fixed ratio schedules, to the built-in direct relationship between rate of response and rate of reinforcement. Fixed IntervalThe cumulative record for fixed-interval responding can closely resemble that of the fixed ratio. However, usually the transition from non-responding (following reinforcement) to high-rate responding (near the end of the fixed interval) has the form of a curve rather than a sudden jump from flat to steeply rising. The beginning of the rise usually occurs at a particular percentage of time into the interval, such as just past half-way into the interval, regardless of the actual size of the interval in seconds. The maximum rate of responding usually occurs just as the interval ends, guaranteeing that a response will occur almost immediately after the interval ends. (Remember, on fixed interval schedules, it is only the first response after the interval ends that produces the reinforcer!) This pattern of gradual acceleration of responding from beginning to end of each interval produces a fluted or "scalloped" pattern, which has been labeled the fixed interval scallop. Patterns of Responding on Ratio and Interval SchedulesEach of these schedules produces a characteristic pattern of responding, as revealed by the cumulative record. Here I describe each pattern and offer some theoretical explanations for those patterns. Fixed RatioResponses occur at a high rate and usually without significant pauses while the subject completes the fixed ratio requirement (the ratio run. On reinforcer delivery, the subject does not immediately resume responding, producing the post-reinforcement pause. The cumulative record resembles a set of stair steps, with alternating runs (steeply sloped lines) and pauses (horizontal lines). The post-reinforcement pauses increase in length as the ratio size is made larger. Current evidence suggests that the post-reinforcement pauses occur because of the delay between the resumption of responding and eventual delivery of the reinforcer. With high ratios this delay can be considerable. Delay of reinforcement is known to weaken the effect of reinforcer delivery on the probability of the response. Following reinforcer delivery, the subject has the option of initiating a new ratio run or engaging in some other activity, which may provide its own inherent, immediate reinforcement. Because of the delay between initiating a ratio run and receiving the reinforcer, this activity may not be as attractive as some others, so the subject does these others first, creating the post-reinforcement pause. As for the ratio run, it is generally true of ratio schedules that higher response rates yield higer rates of reinforcement. This builds in a positive feedback loop that tends to drive response rates to the highest levels that the subject can comfortably sustain. Variable RatioVariable ratio schedules tend to sustain high rates of responding, with little evidence of pausing, other than the time required to retrieve the reinforcer (if necessary). The cumulative record is a steeply angled line with occasional "blips" marking the moments when the reinforcer was delivered. The absence of significant post-reinforcement pauses is a striking feature of variable ratio schedules, given their ubiquity on fixed ratio schedules. The lack of pauses appears to be due to the fact that occasionally even the very first response or two after reinforcement will yeild another reinforcer, due to the schedule's inclusion of a few very low ratios among the variable ratio sizes provided. Consequently, initiation of a new ratio run is sometimes strongly reinforced by nearly immediate reinforcer delivery, so that this behavior remains a relatively high-probability one even right after completion of the previous ratio. The steeply rising cumulative record is due both to the elimination of pauses and, as in fixed ratio schedules, to the built-in direct relationship between rate of response and rate of reinforcement. Fixed IntervalThe cumulative record for fixed-interval responding can closely resemble that of the fixed ratio. However, usually the transition from non-responding (following reinforcement) to high-rate responding (near the end of the fixed interval) has the form of a curve rather than a sudden jump from flat to steeply rising. The beginning of the rise usually occurs at a particular percentage of time into the interval, such as just past half-way into the interval, regardless of the actual size of the interval in seconds. The maximum rate of responding usually occurs just as the interval ends, guaranteeing that a response will occur almost immediately after the interval ends. (Remember, on fixed interval schedules, it is only the first response after the interval ends that produces the reinforcer!) This pattern of gradual acceleration of responding from beginning to end of each interval produces a fluted or "scalloped" pattern, which has been labeled the fixed interval scallop.

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:

Pola Menanggapi pada Ratio dan Jadwal Interval
Setiap jadwal tersebut menghasilkan pola karakteristik merespons, seperti diungkapkan oleh catatan kumulatif. Di sini saya menjelaskan setiap pola dan menawarkan beberapa penjelasan teoritis untuk pola-pola.
Rasio Tetap
Tanggapan terjadi pada tingkat tinggi dan biasanya tanpa jeda signifikan sementara subjek melengkapi persyaratan rasio tetap (rasio run. Pada pengiriman penguat, subjek tidak segera melanjutkan merespons, memproduksi jeda pasca-penguatan. Rekor kumulatif menyerupai serangkaian anak tangga, dengan bergantian berjalan (garis tajam miring) dan jeda (garis horizontal). Para jeda pasca-penguatan peningkatan panjang sebagai ukuran rasio dibuat lebih besar.
Bukti saat ini menunjukkan bahwa jeda pasca-penguatan terjadi karena penundaan antara dimulainya kembali merespon dan pengiriman akhirnya penguat tersebut. Dengan rasio tinggi penundaan ini bisa cukup. Keterlambatan penguatan dikenal untuk melemahkan pengaruh pemberian penguat pada probabilitas dari pengiriman penguat respon. Setelah, subjek memiliki pilihan untuk memulai rasio baru dijalankan atau terlibat dalam kegiatan lain, yang dapat memberikan melekat, penguatan langsung sendiri. Karena penundaan antara memulai rasio run dan menerima penguat tersebut, kegiatan ini mungkin tidak semenarik seperti beberapa orang lain, sehingga subjek tidak lain ini pertama, menciptakan jeda pasca-penguatan.
Adapun rasio run, umumnya benar jadwal rasio yang tingkat respons yang lebih tinggi menghasilkan tingkat Higer penguatan. Ini dibangun dalam umpan balik positif yang cenderung mendorong tingkat respons ke tingkat tertinggi bahwa subjek nyaman dapat mempertahankan.
Rasio Variabel
jadwal rasio Variabel cenderung untuk mempertahankan tingkat tinggi merespons, dengan sedikit bukti berhenti sejenak, selain waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk mengambil yang penguat (jika perlu). Rekor kumulatif adalah garis tajam miring dengan sesekali "blip" menandai saat ketika penguat disampaikan.
Tidak adanya jeda pasca-penguatan yang signifikan adalah fitur mencolok dari jadwal rasio variabel, mengingat di mana-mana mereka pada jadwal rasio tetap. Kurangnya jeda tampaknya karena fakta bahwa kadang-kadang bahkan pertama atau dua respon setelah penguatan akan luluh penguat lain, karena masuknya jadwal tentang beberapa rasio yang sangat rendah di antara ukuran rasio variabel yang disediakan. Akibatnya, inisiasi rasio baru berjalan kadang-kadang sangat diperkuat oleh pengiriman penguat hampir segera, sehingga perilaku ini masih relatif tinggi probabilitas salah satu bahkan tepat setelah selesainya rasio sebelumnya. The tajam naik catatan kumulatif karena baik untuk penghapusan jeda dan, seperti dalam jadwal rasio tetap, dengan built-in hubungan langsung antara tingkat respon dan tingkat penguatan.
Tetap Interval
Rekor kumulatif untuk tetap interval menanggapi erat dapat menyerupai bahwa rasio tetap. Namun, biasanya transisi dari non-merespons (reinforcement berikut) untuk tingkat tinggi menanggapi (dekat akhir interval tetap) memiliki bentuk kurva daripada tiba-tiba melompat dari datar sampai curam naik. Awal meningkat biasanya terjadi pada persentase tertentu dari waktu ke interval, seperti hanya melewati setengah jalan ke interval, terlepas dari ukuran sebenarnya dari interval dalam hitungan detik. Tingkat maksimum menanggapi biasanya terjadi seperti ujung selang, menjamin bahwa respon akan terjadi segera setelah interval berakhir. (Ingat, pada jadwal interval tetap, hanya tanggapan pertama setelah interval berakhir yang menghasilkan penguat tersebut!) Pola percepatan bertahap menanggapi dari awal sampai akhir dari setiap interval menghasilkan "bergigi" pola bergalur atau, yang telah berlabel kerang interval tetap.
Pola Menanggapi pada Ratio dan Jadwal Interval
Setiap jadwal tersebut menghasilkan pola karakteristik merespons, seperti diungkapkan oleh catatan kumulatif. Di sini saya menjelaskan setiap pola dan menawarkan beberapa penjelasan teoritis untuk pola-pola.
Rasio Tetap
Tanggapan terjadi pada tingkat tinggi dan biasanya tanpa jeda signifikan sementara subjek melengkapi persyaratan rasio tetap (rasio run. Pada pengiriman penguat, subjek tidak segera melanjutkan merespons, memproduksi jeda pasca-penguatan. Rekor kumulatif menyerupai serangkaian anak tangga, dengan bergantian berjalan (garis tajam miring) dan jeda (garis horizontal). Para jeda pasca-penguatan peningkatan panjang sebagai ukuran rasio dibuat lebih besar.
Bukti saat ini menunjukkan bahwa jeda pasca-penguatan terjadi karena penundaan antara dimulainya kembali merespon dan pengiriman akhirnya penguat tersebut. Dengan rasio tinggi penundaan ini bisa cukup. Keterlambatan penguatan dikenal untuk melemahkan pengaruh pemberian penguat pada probabilitas dari pengiriman penguat respon. Setelah, subjek memiliki pilihan untuk memulai rasio baru dijalankan atau terlibat dalam kegiatan lain, yang dapat memberikan melekat, penguatan langsung sendiri. Karena penundaan antara memulai rasio run dan menerima penguat tersebut, kegiatan ini mungkin tidak semenarik seperti beberapa orang lain, sehingga subjek tidak lain ini pertama, menciptakan jeda pasca-penguatan.
Adapun rasio run, umumnya benar jadwal rasio yang tingkat respons yang lebih tinggi menghasilkan tingkat Higer penguatan. Ini dibangun dalam umpan balik positif yang cenderung mendorong tingkat respons ke tingkat tertinggi bahwa subjek nyaman dapat mempertahankan.
Rasio Variabel
jadwal rasio Variabel cenderung untuk mempertahankan tingkat tinggi merespons, dengan sedikit bukti berhenti sejenak, selain waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk mengambil yang penguat (jika perlu). Rekor kumulatif adalah garis tajam miring dengan sesekali "blip" menandai saat ketika penguat disampaikan.
Tidak adanya jeda pasca-penguatan yang signifikan adalah fitur mencolok dari jadwal rasio variabel, mengingat di mana-mana mereka pada jadwal rasio tetap. Kurangnya jeda tampaknya karena fakta bahwa kadang-kadang bahkan pertama atau dua respon setelah penguatan akan luluh penguat lain, karena masuknya jadwal tentang beberapa rasio yang sangat rendah di antara ukuran rasio variabel yang disediakan. Akibatnya, inisiasi rasio baru berjalan kadang-kadang sangat diperkuat oleh pengiriman penguat hampir segera, sehingga perilaku ini masih relatif tinggi probabilitas salah satu bahkan tepat setelah selesainya rasio sebelumnya. The tajam naik catatan kumulatif karena baik untuk penghapusan jeda dan, seperti dalam jadwal rasio tetap, dengan built-in hubungan langsung antara tingkat respon dan tingkat penguatan.
Tetap Interval
Rekor kumulatif untuk tetap interval menanggapi erat dapat menyerupai bahwa rasio tetap. Namun, biasanya transisi dari non-merespons (reinforcement berikut) untuk tingkat tinggi menanggapi (dekat akhir interval tetap) memiliki bentuk kurva daripada tiba-tiba melompat dari datar sampai curam naik. Awal meningkat biasanya terjadi pada persentase tertentu dari waktu ke interval, seperti hanya melewati setengah jalan ke interval, terlepas dari ukuran sebenarnya dari interval dalam hitungan detik. Tingkat maksimum menanggapi biasanya terjadi seperti ujung selang, menjamin bahwa respon akan terjadi segera setelah interval berakhir. (Ingat, pada jadwal interval tetap, hanya tanggapan pertama setelah interval berakhir yang menghasilkan penguat tersebut!) Pola percepatan bertahap menanggapi dari awal sampai akhir dari setiap interval menghasilkan "bergigi" pola bergalur atau, yang telah berlabel kerang interval tetap.