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ConclusionIf protecting the biological health of athletes was a critical concern of sporting bodies and anti-doping authorities, then it would seem that the range of risks that athletes encounter on a regular basis would be dealt with in a more concerted and comprehensive manner. Given George Orwell’s equation of sport and war, however, it would appear that bodies are little more than ‘cannon fodder’ on the sports field and may be largely expend-able in the pursuit of national and international prestige. Understanding health, therefore, as a broader social and cultural construct emphasises the multiple ideologies upon which this notion rests, and reveals it to be reflective of issues of national vitality and standing as well as personal morality and collective integrity. Within the context of sport, protecting the ‘health’ of athletes is equated with protecting national interests, and for thisreason, individual boundaries and national borders are synonymous. The expulsion of foreign bodies from the athlete and the recovery of its purity are mirrored in efforts to rid the national body of similar undesirable con-tamination to preserve social order and stability. In essence, then, anti-doping strategies must be interrogated as part of a medico-moral discourse that is not primarily focused on biological welfare, but which is aligned more closely to issues of ‘fairness’ and morality than might first be expected.Despite the fact that ‘health’ may be a broader social construct, there is nevertheless evidence that doping, as well as other sporting practices, can cause harm to the body. Whilst prohibiting illicit drugs and methods on the basis of health may be unsustainable in theory, and in practice may provoke more damage to athletes’ bodies, ensuring the well-being of their 90 The nature of healthcharges should be, at least in part, a responsibility of those who benefit directly from their labour. Like any employer, international sporting bodies and national governments have an implied duty of care towards those in their service. Anti-doping strategies are, however, limited and ineffective when it comes to safeguarding physical well-being, and for this reason, Savulescu and his colleagues (2004) suggest that ‘health’ rather than ‘bodily corruption’ should be the primary concern. Rather than testing athletes for evidence of illicit substances in their bodies, they should be examined to ensure they are physically prepared for the rigours of sporting training and com-petition. For example, if, in the case of blood doping, rEPO, altitude train-ing or hypoxic chambers, haematocrit levels in the blood stream above 50 per cent is considered to be the point at which the well-being of an athlete is jeopardised, then all athletes should have their blood tested for haema-tocrit levels. If they have more than a 50 per cent concentration, then they should be prevented from competing, regardless whether their blood was thickened through ‘natural’ or ‘artificial’ means, or was simply a result of genetics.Safeguarding the health of athletes may lie at the heart of anti-doping policies; however, it is clear that ‘health’ is an elusive concept, which is inextricably linked to broader moral and national discourses. In essence, these strategies are based on controlling and regulating athletes’ bodies to conform to normative standards, which is particularly evident in claims that anabolic steroids corrupt gendered bodies by feminising men and masculi-nising women. In the following chapter, fears about the monstrous femi-nine, the apparent consequence of substantial drug abuse, are explored to examine how the enhanced female body unsettles normative, heterosexual expectations. An ‘unhealthy’, or, more specifically, ‘unfeminine’, appear-ance is acknowledged as evidence of the body’s essential corruption by illi-cit substances, whilst an appropriately attractive body, regardless of what chemicals may be swimming therein, is thought to ‘look’ healthy and so must ‘be’ healthy. This chapter suggests, then, that the body’s own surfaces become visible markers of the guilt or innocence of doping.
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