GENERAL COGNITIVE DEFICITS Overall,

GENERAL COGNITIVE DEFICITS
Overall, the literature shows that there are two approaches to looking at cognitive ability and internalizing disorders: (1) how neuropsychological ability impacts internalizing symptoms and (2) how internalizing symptoms can impact neuropsychological functioning. There is most likely a reciprocal relationship between these factors. Children who have trouble with academic performance because of cognitive deficits can become anxious and depressed as a result. Rapport, Denney, Chung, and Hustace (2001) linked IQ to withdrawal and mixed anxiety and depression. They generated a reciprocal model with the three factors, the dual pathway model. All three factors impacted each other and together could predict cognitive functioning, achievement, and class-room performance. Lundy (2007) measured whether having anxious /depressed or withdrawn symptoms was associated with cognitive and academic measures. There were significant decrements found for children who were anxious/depressed and withdrawn than those without internalizing symptoms on the following cognitive and academic measures: general intelligence including verbal and nonverbal abilities, language, specific executive function skills, attention and processing speed, psychomotor speed and coordination with the domi-nant hand, the interference and /or delayed recall trial of a memory task, and basic reading, math problem solving, and early spelling/writing skills. The conclusion was that having symptoms of anxiety and depression do have an impact on cognitive and academic measures in children.
ACADEMIC DEFICITS
In recent years, the area of internalizing disorders has become increasingly studied as it relates to school-age children and adolescents due to the potential negative impact it may have on students' education (Herman, Lambert, Reinke & lalongo, 2008; Herman & Ostrander, 2007; Laundy, 2007; Maughan, Rowe, Loeber, & Stouthamer-Loeber, 2003; Rapport et al., 2001). Rapport et al. (2001), among others, suggest that anxiety/depression and social withdrawal contribute to academic underachievement above and beyond intelligence levels.
Studies have shown that academic underachievement leads to depression later in one’s academic career (Herman et al., 2009; Maughan et al., 2003; Rapport et al., 2001). In a study conducted by Herman and colleagues (2008), it was found that iksadonlic underachievement and depression can be linked to the init.-101.1v co;nitive problem of perceptions of a lack of control. This lack of control stems from a long history of failure and not being able to succeed in an academic setting, something often found in children diagnosed with a learning disability, which can be generalized to other areas of life (Sideridis, 2007). Children use external cues to assess themselves and make conclusions about their self-control and competence; in school, the classroom and peers serve as two of these moderators (Herman et al., 2008). Thus, school neuropsychologists ought to be aware of how the external world may be affecting the internal processes of children in school. Because memory and learning are highly dependent on optimal perform-ance of the frontal cortex, they are often comorbid with neuropsychiatric internalizing disorders (Semrud-Clikeman, 2005). Martinez and Semrud-Clikeman (2004) found that adolescents with multiple learning disabilities reported poorer functioning at school and clinical maladjustment, emotional symptoms, atypicality, and depression than typical achieving peers. Students with single and multiple learning disabilities perceived a greater sense of inadequacy than the typical peer group. Regarding gender, girls reported more emotional symptoms, social stress, and depression, while boys reported school maladjustment and sensation-seeking concerns. A recent study examined children who were at risk for the development of anxiety or depression and their performance on reading and spelling tasks. Results indicated that children at risk for depression made more spelling errors during dictation. There were no differences on reading tasks in the group of children at risk for anxiety (Bonifacci, Candria, & Contento 2008). Maughan et al. (2003) found that reading problems occurred prior to any depressive symptoms in children. They ascertained that even after controlling for other variables often associated with depression, such as family problems, conduct problems, and inattention, 7- to 10-year-old boys with severe reading problems were three times more likely be depressed in a followup assessment after a period of struggling with the reading problems (Maughan et al., 2003). However, the study did not support the reverse path of depression leading to academic underachievement. One possible conclusion is that low self-control and negative feelings of school competence lead to more generalized negative feelings about the self as a child grows into adolescence, and that the underlying cognitiveproblem can be seen early on in school achievement (Herman et al., 2008; Maughan net al., 2003). Herman and Ostrander (2007) use the term "school maladjustment" to describe problems at school, such as learning problems, school dis-satisfaction, and impaired peer relationships, which can be observed and are also associated with depression and inattention. These researchers sug-gested additional developmental considerations for children's school mal-adjustment. For example, it was found young children under age 10 often experience depression in relation to the environment around them, often visible in their school maladjustment, and as children get older, their depres-sion becomes more cognitively related and internalized. Consequently, control-related beliefs tend to develop over time as the child matures. This supports the notion of helping children as early as possible. If children with school maladjustment are identified at a young age, before experiencing negative control related beliefs, their ultimate depression and internalizing disorder may be diminished. In addition to various reasons for underachievement, there are different achievement strategies students use, which often are affected by their feelings of control and self-esteem (Aunola, Stattin, & Nurmi, 2000). The different strategies that students use tend to be either adaptive (e.g., mastery and task oriented, belief in one's own success, and optimism) or maladaptive (e.g., failure expectations, learned helplessness, belief of lack of control, and task avoidance (Aunola et al., 2000; Dweck, 1986). It is suggested that self-esteem, which is developed through internal understandings of individual experi-ences, plays a key role in a student's achievement strategy usage. It was found that as maladaptive strategy usage increased, so did the number of reported depressive symptoms; low self-esteem was related to both problem behaviors and low achievement (Aunola et al., 2000). It was concluded that students' self-esteem is related substantially to a student's achievement strategy, school adjustment, and, if these previous areas are negative, internalizing disorder symptomatology.

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

GENERAL COGNITIVE DEFICITS Overall, the literature shows that there are two approaches to looking at cognitive ability and internalizing disorders: (1) how neuropsychological ability impacts internalizing symptoms and (2) how internalizing symptoms can impact neuropsychological functioning. There is most likely a reciprocal relationship between these factors. Children who have trouble with academic performance because of cognitive deficits can become anxious and depressed as a result. Rapport, Denney, Chung, and Hustace (2001) linked IQ to withdrawal and mixed anxiety and depression. They generated a reciprocal model with the three factors, the dual pathway model. All three factors impacted each other and together could predict cognitive functioning, achievement, and class-room performance. Lundy (2007) measured whether having anxious /depressed or withdrawn symptoms was associated with cognitive and academic measures. There were significant decrements found for children who were anxious/depressed and withdrawn than those without internalizing symptoms on the following cognitive and academic measures: general intelligence including verbal and nonverbal abilities, language, specific executive function skills, attention and processing speed, psychomotor speed and coordination with the domi-nant hand, the interference and /or delayed recall trial of a memory task, and basic reading, math problem solving, and early spelling/writing skills. The conclusion was that having symptoms of anxiety and depression do have an impact on cognitive and academic measures in children. DEFISIT AKADEMIK Dalam beberapa tahun terakhir, daerah internalisasi gangguan telah menjadi semakin belajar yang berhubungan dengan anak-anak usia sekolah dan remaja karena potensi dampak negatif yang mungkin memiliki siswa pendidikan (Herman, Lambert, Reinke & lalongo, 2008; Herman & Ostrander, 2007; Laundy, 2007; Maughan, Rowe, Loeber, & Stouthamer-Loeber, 2003; Hubungan et al., 2001). Hubungan et al. (2001), antara lain, menyarankan bahwa Kegelisahan Depresi dan penarikan sosial berkontribusi kurang berprestasi akademik atas dan di luar tingkat kecerdasan. Studies have shown that academic underachievement leads to depression later in one’s academic career (Herman et al., 2009; Maughan et al., 2003; Rapport et al., 2001). In a study conducted by Herman and colleagues (2008), it was found that iksadonlic underachievement and depression can be linked to the init.-101.1v co;nitive problem of perceptions of a lack of control. This lack of control stems from a long history of failure and not being able to succeed in an academic setting, something often found in children diagnosed with a learning disability, which can be generalized to other areas of life (Sideridis, 2007). Children use external cues to assess themselves and make conclusions about their self-control and competence; in school, the classroom and peers serve as two of these moderators (Herman et al., 2008). Thus, school neuropsychologists ought to be aware of how the external world may be affecting the internal processes of children in school. Because memory and learning are highly dependent on optimal perform-ance of the frontal cortex, they are often comorbid with neuropsychiatric internalizing disorders (Semrud-Clikeman, 2005). Martinez and Semrud-Clikeman (2004) found that adolescents with multiple learning disabilities reported poorer functioning at school and clinical maladjustment, emotional symptoms, atypicality, and depression than typical achieving peers. Students with single and multiple learning disabilities perceived a greater sense of inadequacy than the typical peer group. Regarding gender, girls reported more emotional symptoms, social stress, and depression, while boys reported school maladjustment and sensation-seeking concerns. A recent study examined children who were at risk for the development of anxiety or depression and their performance on reading and spelling tasks. Results indicated that children at risk for depression made more spelling errors during dictation. There were no differences on reading tasks in the group of children at risk for anxiety (Bonifacci, Candria, & Contento 2008). Maughan et al. (2003) found that reading problems occurred prior to any depressive symptoms in children. They ascertained that even after controlling for other variables often associated with depression, such as family problems, conduct problems, and inattention, 7- to 10-year-old boys with severe reading problems were three times more likely be depressed in a followup assessment after a period of struggling with the reading problems (Maughan et al., 2003). However, the study did not support the reverse path of depression leading to academic underachievement. One possible conclusion is that low self-control and negative feelings of school competence lead to more generalized negative feelings about the self as a child grows into adolescence, and that the underlying cognitiveproblem can be seen early on in school achievement (Herman et al., 2008; Maughan net al., 2003). Herman and Ostrander (2007) use the term "school maladjustment" to describe problems at school, such as learning problems, school dis-satisfaction, and impaired peer relationships, which can be observed and are also associated with depression and inattention. These researchers sug-gested additional developmental considerations for children's school mal-adjustment. For example, it was found young children under age 10 often experience depression in relation to the environment around them, often visible in their school maladjustment, and as children get older, their depres-sion becomes more cognitively related and internalized. Consequently, control-related beliefs tend to develop over time as the child matures. This supports the notion of helping children as early as possible. If children with school maladjustment are identified at a young age, before experiencing negative control related beliefs, their ultimate depression and internalizing disorder may be diminished. In addition to various reasons for underachievement, there are different achievement strategies students use, which often are affected by their feelings of control and self-esteem (Aunola, Stattin, & Nurmi, 2000). The different strategies that students use tend to be either adaptive (e.g., mastery and task oriented, belief in one's own success, and optimism) or maladaptive (e.g., failure expectations, learned helplessness, belief of lack of control, and task avoidance (Aunola et al., 2000; Dweck, 1986). It is suggested that self-esteem, which is developed through internal understandings of individual experi-ences, plays a key role in a student's achievement strategy usage. It was found that as maladaptive strategy usage increased, so did the number of reported depressive symptoms; low self-esteem was related to both problem behaviors and low achievement (Aunola et al., 2000). It was concluded that students' self-esteem is related substantially to a student's achievement strategy, school adjustment, and, if these previous areas are negative, internalizing disorder symptomatology.

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:

Defisit kognitif UMUM
Secara keseluruhan, literatur menunjukkan bahwa ada dua pendekatan untuk melihat kemampuan kognitif dan internalisasi gangguan: (1) bagaimana dampak internalisasi gejala dan (2) bagaimana gejala internalisasi dapat berdampak fungsi neuropsikologis kemampuan neuropsikologis. Ada kemungkinan besar hubungan timbal balik antara faktor-faktor ini. Anak-anak yang memiliki masalah dengan kinerja akademik karena defisit kognitif bisa menjadi cemas dan depresi sebagai hasilnya. Rapport, Denney, Chung, dan Hustace (2001) terkait IQ untuk penarikan dan kecemasan campuran dan depresi. Mereka dihasilkan model timbal balik dengan tiga faktor, model ganda jalur. Ketiga faktor berdampak sama lain dan bersama-sama bisa memprediksi fungsi kognitif, prestasi, dan kinerja ruang kelas. Lundy (2007) diukur apakah memiliki gejala cemas / depresi atau ditarik dikaitkan dengan langkah-langkah kognitif dan akademik. Ada decrements signifikan ditemukan anak-anak yang cemas / depresi dan ditarik daripada mereka yang tidak internalisasi gejala pada langkah-langkah kognitif dan akademik berikut: kecerdasan umum termasuk kemampuan verbal dan nonverbal, bahasa, keterampilan fungsi eksekutif tertentu, perhatian dan kecepatan pemrosesan, kecepatan psikomotor dan koordinasi dengan tangan domi-nant, gangguan dan / atau percobaan recall tertunda dari tugas memori, dan membaca dasar, pemecahan masalah matematika, dan keterampilan ejaan / tulisan awal. Kesimpulannya adalah bahwa memiliki gejala kecemasan dan depresi yang berdampak pada tindakan kognitif dan akademik pada anak-anak.
Defisit AKADEMIK
Dalam beberapa tahun terakhir, daerah gangguan internalisasi telah menjadi semakin dipelajari karena berkaitan dengan anak usia sekolah dan remaja karena dampak negatif potensial mungkin ada pada pendidikan siswa (Herman, Lambert, Reinke & lalongo, 2008; Herman & Ostrander, 2007; Laundy, 2007; Maughan, Rowe, Loeber, & Stouthamer-Loeber, 2003; Rapport et al, 2001. ). Rapport et al. (2001), antara lain, menunjukkan bahwa kecemasan / depresi dan penarikan sosial berkontribusi prestasi akademik atas dan di luar tingkat kecerdasan.
Penelitian telah menunjukkan bahwa prestasi akademik menyebabkan depresi di kemudian karir akademik seseorang (Herman et al, 2009;. Maughan et al ., 2003; Rapport et al, 2001).. Dalam penelitian yang dilakukan oleh Herman dan rekan (2008), ditemukan bahwa prestasi iksadonlic dan depresi dapat dikaitkan dengan co init.-101.1v, masalah kognitif persepsi dari kurangnya kontrol. Kurangnya kontrol berasal dari sejarah panjang kegagalan dan tidak mampu untuk berhasil dalam lingkungan akademik, sesuatu yang sering ditemukan pada anak-anak didiagnosis dengan ketidakmampuan belajar, yang dapat digeneralisasi ke area lain dari kehidupan (Sideridis, 2007). Anak-anak menggunakan isyarat eksternal untuk menilai diri mereka sendiri dan membuat kesimpulan tentang pengendalian diri dan kompetensi mereka; di sekolah, kelas dan rekan-rekan berfungsi sebagai dua moderator ini (Herman et al., 2008). Dengan demikian, neuropsychologists sekolah harus menyadari bagaimana dunia luar dapat mempengaruhi proses internal dari anak-anak di sekolah. Karena memori dan pembelajaran sangat tergantung pada optimal melakukan-Ance dari korteks frontal, mereka sering komorbiditas dengan gangguan internalisasi neuropsikiatri (Semrud-Clikeman, 2005). Martinez dan Semrud-Clikeman (2004) menemukan bahwa remaja dengan beberapa ketidakmampuan belajar dilaporkan miskin berfungsi di sekolah dan ketidakmampuan klinis, gejala emosional, atypicality, dan depresi daripada rekan-rekan mencapai khas. Siswa dengan ketidakmampuan belajar tunggal dan beberapa dirasakan rasa yang lebih besar tidak mampu dari kelompok sebaya khas. Mengenai jenis kelamin, perempuan melaporkan gejala lebih emosional, stres sosial, dan depresi, sedangkan anak laki-laki dilaporkan ketidakmampuan sekolah dan kekhawatiran sensasi-mencari. Sebuah studi baru-baru ini meneliti anak-anak yang berisiko untuk pengembangan kecemasan atau depresi dan kinerja mereka pada membaca dan mengeja tugas. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa anak-anak beresiko untuk depresi membuat kesalahan ejaan lebih selama dikte. Tidak ada perbedaan pada tugas-tugas membaca pada kelompok anak-anak berisiko untuk kecemasan (Bonifacci, Candria, & Contento 2008). Maughan dkk. (2003) menemukan bahwa masalah membaca terjadi sebelum gejala depresi pada anak-anak. Mereka dipastikan bahwa bahkan setelah mengontrol variabel lain yang sering dikaitkan dengan depresi, seperti masalah keluarga, masalah perilaku, dan kurangnya perhatian, anak laki-laki 7- 10 tahun dengan masalah membaca parah tiga kali lebih mungkin mengalami depresi dalam penilaian ikutan setelah periode berjuang dengan masalah membaca (Maughan et al., 2003). Namun, studi ini tidak mendukung reverse path depresi yang mengarah ke prestasi akademik. Salah satu kesimpulan yang mungkin adalah bahwa pengendalian diri yang rendah dan perasaan negatif timbal kompetensi sekolah untuk perasaan negatif yang lebih umum tentang diri sebagai seorang anak tumbuh menjadi remaja, dan bahwa mendasari cognitiveproblem dapat dilihat pada awal prestasi sekolah (Herman et al., 2008;. Maughan al bersih, 2003). Herman dan Ostrander (2007) menggunakan istilah "ketidakmampuan sekolah" untuk menggambarkan masalah di sekolah, seperti masalah belajar, sekolah dis-kepuasan, dan gangguan hubungan sebaya, yang dapat diamati dan juga terkait dengan depresi dan kurangnya perhatian. Para peneliti pertimbangan perkembangan tambahan sug-gested untuk sekolah mal-penyesuaian anak-anak. Misalnya, ditemukan anak-anak di bawah usia 10 sering mengalami depresi dalam kaitannya dengan lingkungan sekitar mereka, sering terlihat dalam ketidakmampuan sekolah mereka, dan sebagai anak-anak mendapatkan lebih tua, mereka depres-sion menjadi lebih kognitif terkait dan diinternalisasi. Akibatnya, keyakinan terkait kontrol cenderung untuk mengembangkan dari waktu ke waktu sebagai anak dewasa. Ini mendukung gagasan membantu anak-anak sedini mungkin. Jika anak-anak dengan ketidakmampuan sekolah diidentifikasi di usia muda, sebelum mengalami kontrol terkait keyakinan negatif, depresi utama mereka dan gangguan internalisasi dapat berkurang. Selain berbagai alasan untuk berprestasi, ada strategi pencapaian yang berbeda siswa menggunakan, yang sering dipengaruhi oleh perasaan mereka kontrol dan harga diri (Aunola, Stattin, & Nurmi, 2000). Strategi yang berbeda yang menggunakan siswa cenderung baik adaptif (misalnya, penguasaan dan tugas berorientasi, keyakinan dalam keberhasilan sendiri, dan optimisme) atau maladaptif (misalnya, harapan kegagalan, belajar ketidakberdayaan, kepercayaan kurangnya kontrol, dan tugas penghindaran (Aunola et al, 2000;... Dweck, 1986) Disarankan bahwa harga diri, yang dikembangkan melalui pemahaman internal individu experi-ences, memainkan peran kunci dalam penggunaan strategi pencapaian siswa Ditemukan bahwa penggunaan strategi sebagai maladaptif meningkat, begitu pula jumlah gejala depresi dilaporkan; harga diri yang rendah berkaitan dengan kedua masalah perilaku dan prestasi rendah Disimpulkan bahwa siswa diri berhubungan secara substansial dengan strategi pencapaian siswa (Aunola et al, 2000.). , penyesuaian sekolah, dan, jika daerah-daerah yang sebelumnya negatif, internalisasi gangguan simtomatologi.