EugenicsLogo from the Second Intern

Eugenics
Logo from the Second International Eugenics
Conference, 1921, depicting eugenics as a
tree which unites a variety of different fields.
[1]
Eugenics ( / j uː ˈ dʒɛ nɪ k s/ ; from Greek εὐγενής
eugenes "well-born" from εὖ eu, "good, well"
and γένος genos , "race") [2][3] is the belief
and practice of improving the genetic quality
of the human population. [4][5] It is a social
philosophy advocating the improvement of
human genetic traits through the promotion of
higher reproduction of people with desired
traits (positive eugenics), and reduced
reproduction of people with less-desired or
undesired traits (negative eugenics). [6]
History
Francis Galton was a pioneer in
eugenics, coining the term itself
and popularizing the collocation of
the words "nature and nurture". [7]
Main article: History of eugenics
The idea of eugenics existed previous to the
existence of the word eugenics, for example,
William Goodell (1829-1894) advocated
castration and spaying of the insane.[8][9]
However, eugenics as a modern concept was
originally developed by Francis Galton.
Francis Galton had read his half-cousin
Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution , which
sought to explain the development of plant
and animal species, and desired to apply it to
humans. Galton believed that desirable traits
were hereditary based on biographical
studies. [10] In 1883, one year after Darwin's
death, Galton gave his research a name:
"eugenics". [11] Throughout its recent history,
eugenics has remained a controversial
concept. [12]
Eugenics became an academic discipline at
many colleges and universities, and received
funding from many sources. [13] Three
International Eugenics Conferences presented
a global venue for eugenists with meetings in
1912 in London, and in 1921 and 1932 in New
York. Eugenic policies were first implemented
in the early 1900s in the United States. [14] It
has roots in France, Germany, Great Britain
and the United States. [15] Later, in the 1920s
and 30s, the eugenic policy of sterilizing
certain mental patients was implemented in
other countries, including Belgium ,[16] Brazil ,
[17] Canada, [18] Japan , and Sweden. [19] The
scientific reputation of eugenics started to
decline in the 1930s, a time when Ernst Rüdin
used eugenics as a justification for the racial
policies of Nazi Germany . Nevertheless, in
Sweden the eugenics program continued until
1975. [19] In addition to being practiced in a
number of countries, eugenics was
internationally organized through the
International Federation of Eugenic
Organizations. [20] Its scientific aspects were
carried on through research bodies such as
the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology,
Human Heredity, and Eugenics ,[21] the Cold
Spring Harbour Carnegie Institution for
Experimental Evolution , [22] and the Eugenics
Record Office. [23] Its political aspects
involved advocating laws allowing the pursuit
of eugenic objectives, such as sterilization
laws. [24] Its moral aspects included rejection
of the doctrine that all human beings are born
equal, and redefining morality purely in terms
of genetic fitness.[25] Its racist elements
included pursuit of a pure " Nordic race" or
" Aryan " genetic pool and the eventual
elimination of "less fit" races. [26][27]
As a social movement, eugenics reached its
greatest popularity in the early decades of the
20th century. At this point in time, eugenics
was practiced around the world and was
promoted by governments, and influential
individuals and institutions. Many countries
enacted [28] various eugenics policies and
programmes, including: genetic screening,
birth control , promoting differential birth rates,
marriage restrictions, segregation (both racial
segregation and segregation of the mentally ill
from the rest of the population), compulsory
sterilization , forced abortions or forced
pregnancies , and genocide. Most of these
policies were later regarded as coercive or
restrictive, and now few jurisdictions
implement policies that are explicitly labelled
as eugenic or unequivocally eugenic in
substance. The methods of implementing
eugenics varied by country; however, some
early 20th century methods involved
identifying and classifying individuals and
their families, including the poor, mentally ill,
blind, deaf, developmentally disabled,
promiscuous women , homosexuals, and racial
groups (such as the Roma and Jews in Nazi
Germany ) as "degenerate" or "unfit", the
segregation or institutionalization of such
individuals and groups, their sterilization,
euthanasia, and their mass murder. [29] The
practice of euthanasia was carried out on
hospital patients in the Aktion T4 centers such
as Hartheim Castle.
Hartheim Euthanasia Centre in 2005
A Lebensborn birth house in Nazi
Germany. Created with intention of
raising the birth rate of " Aryan"
children from extramarital relations of
"racially pure and healthy" parents.
By the end of World War II , many of the
discriminatory eugenics laws were largely
abandoned, having become associated with
Nazi Germany. [29][30] After World War II, the
practice of "imposing measures intended to
prevent births within [a population] group" fell
within the definition of the new international
crime of genocide, set out in the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide .[31] The Charter of
Fundamental Rights of the European Union
also proclaims "the prohibition of eugenic
practices, in particular those aiming at
selection of persons". [32] In spite of the
decline in discriminatory eugenics laws,
government practices of compulsive
sterilization continued into the 21st century.
During the ten years President Alberto Fujimori
led Peru from 1990 to 2000, allegedly 2,000
persons were involuntarily sterilized. [33] China
maintains its forcible one-child-policy in order
to reduce population size and dysgenic
fertility, [34] and in 2007 the United Nations
reported forcible sterilisations and
hysterectomies in Uzbekistan. [35] During the
years 2005-06 to 2012-13, nearly one-third of
the 144 California prison inmates who were
sterilized did not give lawful consent to the
operation. [36] In 2013, under Benjamin
Netanyahu, the Israeli government
acknowledged use of Depo-Provera on
Ethiopian Jews without their knowledge or
consent. [37][38]
Developments in genetic , genomic , and
reproductive technologies at the end of the
20th century are raising numerous questions
regarding the ethical status of eugenics,
effectively creating a resurgence of interest in
the subject. Some, such as UC Berkeley
sociologist Troy Duster, claim that modern
genetics is a back door to eugenics. [39] This
view is shared by White House Assistant
Director for Forensic Sciences, Tania
Simoncelli , who claimed in a 2003 publication
by the Population and Development Program
at Hampshire College, that advances in pre-
implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) are
moving society to a "new era of eugenics",
and unlike the Nazi eugenics, modern
eugenics is consumer driven and market
based, "where children are increasingly
regarded as made-to-order consumer
products." [40] In a 2006 newspaper article,
Richard Dawkins said that discussion was
inhibited by the shadow of Nazi misuse, to the
extent that some scientists would not admit
that breeding humans for abilities was at all
possible, but in his view this was not
physically different from breeding domestic
animals for traits such as speed or herding
skill. He felt that enough time had elapsed to
at least ask just what the ethical differences
were between breeding for ability versus
training athletes or forcing children to take
music lessons, though he could think of
persuasive reasons to draw the distinction.
[41] Some, such as Nathaniel C. Comfort from
Johns Hopkins University , claim that the
change from state-led reproductive-genetic
decision-making to individual choice has
moderated the worst abuses of eugenics by
transferring the decision-making from the
state to the patient and their family. [42]
Comfort suggests that "[t]he eugenic impulse
drives us to eliminate disease, live longer and
healthier, with greater intelligence, and a
better adjustment to the conditions of society;
and the health benefits, the intellectual thrill
and the profits of genetic bio-medicine are
too great for us to do otherwise." [43] Others,
such as bio-ethicist Stephen Wilkinson of
Keele University and Honorary Research
Fellow Eve Garrard at the University of
Manchester , claim that some aspects of
modern genetics can be classified as
eugenics, but this classification does not
inherently make modern genetics immoral. In
a co-authored publication by Keele University,
they stated that "[e]ugenics doesn't seem
always to be immoral, and so the fact that
PGD, and other forms of selective
reproduction, might sometimes technically be
eugenic, isn't sufficient to show that they're
wrong." [44]
Meanings and types
Karl Pearson , (1912)
The modern field and term were first
formulated by Francis Galton in 1883, [45]
drawing on the recent work of his half-cousin
Charles Darwin. [46][47] Galton published his
observations and conclusions in his book,
Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its
Development .
The origins of the concept began with certain
interpretations of Mendelian inheritance, and
the theories of August Weismann.[48] The
word eugenics is derived from the Greek word
eu ("good" or "well") and the suffix -genēs
("born"), and was coined by Galton in 1883 to
replace the word " stirpiculture", which he had
used previously but which had come to be
mocked due to its perceived sexual
overtones. [49] Galton defined eugenics as
"the study of all agencies under human
control which can improve or impair the racial
quality of future generations". [50] Galton did
not understand the mechanism of inheritance.
[51]
Eugenics has, from the very beginning, meant
many different things. [ citation needed]
Historically, the term has referred to
everything from prenatal care for mothers to
forced sterilization a

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

EgenetikaLogo dari egenetika internasional keduaKonferensi, 1921, menggambarkan egenetika sebagaipohon yang menyatukan berbagai bidang yang berbeda.[1]Egenetika (/ j uː ˈ dʒɛ nɪ k s / dari Yunani εὐγενήςeugenes "baik dilahirkan" dari εὖ Uni Eropa, "baik, Yah"dan genos γένος, "ras") [2] [3] adalah keyakinandan praktek dalam meningkatkan mutu genetikpopulasi manusia. [4][5] adalah sosialfilsafat yang menganjurkan peningkatansifat-sifat genetik manusia melalui promosilebih tinggi reproduksi orang yang diinginkanCiri-ciri (egenetika positif), dan mengurangireproduksi dari orang-orang dengan kurang diinginkan atausifat yang tidak diinginkan (negatif egenetika). [6]SejarahFrancis Galton adalah pelopor dalamegenetika, coining istilah itu sendiridan mempopulerkan metodekata-kata "alam dan memelihara". [7]Artikel utama: sejarah egenetikaAda ide egenetika sebelumnya untukkeberadaan egenetika kata, misalnya,William Goodell (1829-1894) menganjurkanpengebirian dan spaying gila.[8][9]Namun, egenetika sebagai konsep modern adalahawalnya dikembangkan oleh Francis Galton.Francis Galton telah membaca sepupunya setengahCharles Darwin teori evolusi, yangcuba menjelaskan pengembangan tanamanspesies binatang, dan diinginkan untuk menerapkannya kemanusia. Galton percaya bahwa diinginkan ciri-ciriyang turun-temurun didasarkan pada biografistudi. [10] pada tahun 1883, satu tahun setelah Darwinkematian, Galton memberi penelitiannya nama:"egenetika". [11] sepanjang sejarahnya hari,egenetika tetap kontroversialkonsep. [12]Egenetika menjadi disiplin akademik dibanyak perguruan tinggi dan Universitas, dan menerimapendanaan dari berbagai sumber. [13] tigaKonferensi egenetika internasional disajikantempat global untuk eugenists dengan pertemuan di1912 di London, dan pada tahun 1921 dan tahun 1932 baruYork. Eugenic kebijakan pertama dilaksanakandi awal 1900-an di Amerika Serikat. [14]memiliki akar di Perancis, Jerman, Britania Rayadan Amerika Serikat. [15] kemudian, di tahun 1920-andan 30-an, kebijakan eugenic sterilisasipasien mental tertentu dilaksanakan dalamnegara lain, termasuk Belgia, Brasil [16],[17] Kanada, [18] Jepang dan Swedia. [19]reputasi ilmiah egenetika mulaipenurunan tahun 1930-an, waktu ketika Ernst Rüdindigunakan egenetika sebagai pembenaran untuk raskebijakan Nazi Jerman. Namun demikian, diSwedia program egenetika berlanjut hingga1975. [19] Selain menjadi dipraktekkan dijumlah negara, egenetika adalahInternasional diselenggarakan melaluiInternational Federation of EugenicOrganisasi. [20] aspek ilmiah yangdilakukan melalui penelitian tubuh sepertiKaiser Wilhelm Institut Antropologi,Keturunan manusia, dan egenetika, [21] dinginMusim semi Harbour Carnegie Institution untukEvolusi eksperimental, [22] dan egenetikaKantor rekaman. [23] aspek politikterlibat advokasi undang-undang yang memungkinkan mengejareugenic tujuan, seperti sterilisasiundang-undang. [24] aspek moral termasuk penolakandoktrin yang semua manusia dilahirkanmoralitas yang sama, dan mendefinisikan ulang murni dalam istilahgenetik kebugaran.[25] elemen rasistermasuk mengejar murni "Nordic ras" atauRenang genetik "Aryan" dan akhirnyapenghapusan "kurang cocok" ras. [26][27]Sebagai sebuah gerakan sosial, egenetika mencapai nyaterbesar popularitas di awal dekadeabad ke-20. Pada saat ini, egenetikadipraktekkan di seluruh dunia dan merupakandipromosikan oleh pemerintah, dan berpengaruhindividu dan lembaga. Banyak negaradiberlakukan [28] berbagai egenetika kebijakan danprogram, termasuk: skrining genetik,pengendalian kelahiran, mempromosikan tingkat kelahiran diferensial,larangan perkawinan, pemisahan (keduanya rasialpemisahan dan pemisahan orang sakit secara mentaldari seluruh penduduk), wajibsterilisasi, dipaksa aborsi atau dipaksakehamilan, dan genosida. Sebagian besarkebijakan kemudian dianggap sebagai koersif atauketat, dan sekarang beberapa yurisdiksimenerapkan kebijakan yang secara eksplisit diberi labelsebagai eugenic atau tegas eugenic disubstansi. Metode pelaksanaanegenetika bervariasi oleh negara; Namun, beberapametode awal abad 20 yang terlibatmengidentifikasi dan mengklasifikasikan individu dankeluarga mereka, termasuk kaum miskin, mental sakit,buta, tuli, perkembangannya dinonaktifkan,promiscuous perempuan, kaum homoseksual, dan raskelompok-kelompok (seperti Roma dan orang Yahudi di NaziJerman) sebagai "lagu degenerate" atau "tidak baik",pemisahan atau pelembagaan tersebutindividu dan kelompok, sterilisasi mereka,eutanasia, dan pembunuhan massal mereka. [29]praktik eutanasia dilaksanakan padapasien rumah sakit di Aktion T4 pusat tersebutsebagai Hartheim Castle.Eutanasia Hartheim pusat pada tahun 2005Rumah kelahiran Lebensborn di NaziJerman. Dibuat dengan maksudmeningkatkan tingkat kelahiran "Arya"anak-anak dari hubungan luar nikahorang-tua "ras murni dan sehat".Pada akhir Perang Dunia II, banyakundang-undang diskriminatif egenetika yang sebagian besarditinggalkan, menjadi terkait denganJerman Nazi. [29][30] setelah Perang Dunia II,praktek "memaksakan tindakan dimaksudkan untukmencegah kelahiran dalam [populasi] kelompok "jatuhdalam pengertian internasional barukejahatan genosida, ditetapkan dalam Konvensitentang pencegahan dan hukumanKejahatan genosida.[31] PiagamHak-hak mendasar Uni Eropajuga menyatakan "larangan eugenicpraktek, khususnya orang-orang yang bertujuanpemilihan orang". [32] dalam meskipun daripenurunan undang-undang diskriminatif egenetika,praktek-praktek pemerintah kompulsifsterilisasi dilanjutkan ke abad 21.Selama sepuluh tahun Presiden Alberto Fujimoridipimpin Peru dari 1990 sampai 2000, diduga 2.000orang yang tanpa sadar disterilkan. [33] Cinamempertahankan satu paksa-anak-kebijakan dalam rangkato reduce population size and dysgenicfertility, [34] and in 2007 the United Nationsreported forcible sterilisations andhysterectomies in Uzbekistan. [35] During theyears 2005-06 to 2012-13, nearly one-third ofthe 144 California prison inmates who weresterilized did not give lawful consent to theoperation. [36] In 2013, under BenjaminNetanyahu, the Israeli governmentacknowledged use of Depo-Provera onEthiopian Jews without their knowledge orconsent. [37][38]Developments in genetic , genomic , andreproductive technologies at the end of the20th century are raising numerous questionsregarding the ethical status of eugenics,effectively creating a resurgence of interest inthe subject. Some, such as UC Berkeleysociologist Troy Duster, claim that moderngenetics is a back door to eugenics. [39] Thisview is shared by White House AssistantDirector for Forensic Sciences, TaniaSimoncelli , who claimed in a 2003 publicationby the Population and Development Programat Hampshire College, that advances in pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) aremoving society to a "new era of eugenics",and unlike the Nazi eugenics, moderneugenics is consumer driven and marketbased, "where children are increasinglyregarded as made-to-order consumerproducts." [40] In a 2006 newspaper article,Richard Dawkins said that discussion wasinhibited by the shadow of Nazi misuse, to theextent that some scientists would not admitthat breeding humans for abilities was at allpossible, but in his view this was notphysically different from breeding domesticanimals for traits such as speed or herdingskill. He felt that enough time had elapsed toat least ask just what the ethical differenceswere between breeding for ability versustraining athletes or forcing children to takemusic lessons, though he could think ofpersuasive reasons to draw the distinction.[41] Some, such as Nathaniel C. Comfort fromJohns Hopkins University , claim that thechange from state-led reproductive-geneticdecision-making to individual choice hasmoderated the worst abuses of eugenics bytransferring the decision-making from thestate to the patient and their family. [42]Comfort suggests that "[t]he eugenic impulsedrives us to eliminate disease, live longer andhealthier, with greater intelligence, and abetter adjustment to the conditions of society;and the health benefits, the intellectual thrilland the profits of genetic bio-medicine aretoo great for us to do otherwise." [43] Others,such as bio-ethicist Stephen Wilkinson ofKeele University and Honorary ResearchFellow Eve Garrard at the University ofManchester , claim that some aspects ofmodern genetics can be classified aseugenics, but this classification does notinherently make modern genetics immoral. Ina co-authored publication by Keele University,they stated that "[e]ugenics doesn't seemalways to be immoral, and so the fact thatPGD, and other forms of selectivereproduction, might sometimes technically beeugenic, isn't sufficient to show that they'rewrong." [44]Meanings and typesKarl Pearson , (1912)The modern field and term were firstformulated by Francis Galton in 1883, [45]drawing on the recent work of his half-cousinCharles Darwin. [46][47] Galton published hisobservations and conclusions in his book,Inquiries into Human Faculty and ItsDevelopment .The origins of the concept began with certaininterpretations of Mendelian inheritance, andthe theories of August Weismann.[48] Theword eugenics is derived from the Greek wordeu ("good" or "well") and the suffix -genēs("born"), and was coined by Galton in 1883 toreplace the word " stirpiculture", which he hadused previously but which had come to bemocked due to its perceived sexualovertones. [49] Galton defined eugenics as"the study of all agencies under humancontrol which can improve or impair the racialquality of future generations". [50] Galton didnot understand the mechanism of inheritance.[51]Eugenics has, from the very beginning, meantmany different things. [ citation needed]Historically, the term has referred toeverything from prenatal care for mothers toforced sterilization a