Structural Effects in Education 125the public sector with many all min terjemahan - Structural Effects in Education 125the public sector with many all min Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

Structural Effects in Education 125

Structural Effects in Education 125
the public sector with many all minority schools. Here is a case where it is unlikely that the
proportion of minority students in the sector will resemble that in the schools. The case also
opens the issue of whether schools with minority student proportions of different sizes make
the same social, programmatic, instructional, and curricular provisions and achieve a common
school effect to the same degree. Although a communitarian climate combined with a unified
academic curriculum may be associated with a weak relation between social background and
achievement (the common school effect) calculated on a sectoral population of students, it is
equally plausible that such an association can vary or not appear school-by-school and can be
attributed to the varied ways schools deal with their student populations. A test of this effect
needs to rely on within-school variations—a persuasive one on school populations with substantial
representations of racial/ethnic groups. It should also attend to the identification of
mechanisms and whether they differ by school composition.
The findings (Bryk, et al., 1993; Lee & Bryk, 1989) showed that sector differences in
achievement diminish in size when the academic organization of schools is taken into account,
and that sector differences favoring Catholic schools in teacher commitment and in student
engagement are diminished when communitarian aspects of schools are introduced. How to
interpret this evidence depends on how one understands academic and communitarian organization
and their measurement (Bryk and associates, 1993, p. 286). Again questions about
mechanisms arise, two in particular: one pertains to how school organization is formulated;
the other to whether student selection can account for both the Catholic school advantage and
the common school effect.
The treatment of academic and communitarian school organization rests on global characterizations
of schools (principals' reports about schools, school averages, and such characterizes
as size and sector [Bryk and associates, 1993, p. 189], but not on within-school variation
in structure and operation). The examination of how conmiunitarian organization (Bryk
and associates, 1993, pp. 279-282) relates to teacher commitment and to student engagement
by school is based on a combination of 23 measures into a "community index," a procedure
that does not reveal the patterning of these measures within schools, how they function to
influence achievement, or how they function to produce a common school effect. The procedures
employed in the chapter "Variations in Internal Operations" were based on school-level
summaries of internal operations, not on within-school variations, the same logic of contextual
analysis found in earlier studies (Brookover et al., 1979; McDill & Rigsby, 1973; Rutter
et al., 1979).
With respect to mechanisms, the question is whether school influences can be demonstrated
without also taking into account the constituent units of school organization, the activities
of teachers and school officials, and the contingencies they face. Although the observations
of school personnel can be summarized to provide a global indication of community and
solidarity, and schools can be compared on that basis, one does not know whether, for example,
all departments, teachers of the same subject or grade, or subgroups organized on
some other basis share this quality or whether community and solidarity of units can create
cleavages in the whole, as Loveless (1994) has shown in connection with the untracking issue.
Teachers and administrators may agree on school goals and values when framed abstractly but
not necessarily on specific goals and the means to accomplish them, and they might not employ
those means in their activities. As Pallas (1988) observed, climate differences between
schools are modest in size, substantial variation and disagreement exist within schools as
expressed in teachers' reports about what the climate is, and climate can be viewed as an
outcome as well as a cause. The use of global organizational indices tends to obscure these




126 Robert Dreeben
differences, the patterns of action and interaction in the work of schools, the directionality of
causation, and the conceptual basis on which an argument about mechanisms can be constructed.
The selectivity controversy pertains to whether the advantage of Catholic schools over
public schools is attributable to academic and communitarian organization or to advantaged
students selecting Catholic schools. It has been treated largely as a problem in assessing selfselection
bias (Murnane, Newstead, & Olsen, 1985; Neal, 1997) in forming the composition
of school populations. This perspective ignores selectivity from the supply side as a component
of internal school structure and operation, while fastening on the demand (household
choice) side of enrollment. What's more, it neglects selectivity as an aspect of school operation.
Bryk and associates (1993) observed that Catholic sector secondary schools express
their academic and communitarian values in curricular and social organization. Making these
values known (see the example of one school's statement of its philosophy [pp. 146-147]) is
part of the student selection process, of establishing self-definitions, or of establishing charters
(Meyer, 1970, 1977), a practice also familiar to private to magnet, and to vocational
schools. Parents selecting a kind of school and schooling is partly a response to what schools
publicize about themselves. If schools claim to be academic and possess certain social and
spiritual qualities, students and their parents interested in this kind of schooling (Greeley,
1982, p. 22), irrespective of background, will be more likely to seek admission than those
looking for something different. From the pool of admission seekers, schools select students
they believe will prosper under their academic regimen and form of social life. Selection
occurs on both the supply and the demand sides. On the former, schools that can do so select
students; those that cannot select them use other means to adapt the school's offerings, academic
and social, to the population. Controversies about selection bias have concentrated on
the wealth and status advantages of the Catholic school population, as if such advantages were
proxies for academic proclivities and talents. Bryk and associates' (1993, p. 252) evidence
showed academic background correlating 0.21 and 0.30 with social class and -0.04 and -0.11
with minority status among Catholic students and public school students, respectively. These
weak relationships indicate the leeway that academic schools have in selecting academically
interested students whatever their class and minority origins. Given the claims for Catholic
school advantage and a common school effect, selection on both the supply and the demand
sides needs to be examined as a matter of internal school organization and functioning. It
cannot be addressed convincingly through structural effects reasoning that relies on such broad
categorical measures as sector and averaged school properties.
The nonselectivity of most public schools raises similar issues. The availability of Catholic,
private, and public charter and magnet schools alters the attendance distribution of the schoolgoing
population, at least in metropolitan areas. When students attending these schools leave
the larger pool, nonselective public schools become the only option for those who remain. The
schools must accordingly organize themselves to serve populations diverse in the languages
spoken, the variety of vocational and academic interests, degrees of student indifference and
inconsistency of attendance, the mix of special education constituencies, and the presence of
students with disrupted family lives. For characterizing the variety of organizational and programmatic
alternatives present in the public school domain (see Page, 1999), for a relevant
discussion), the available evidence from large surveys has been insufficiently informative to
indicate how they operate under prevailing conditions; the opprobrious metaphors of "bureaucracy"
(Bryk et al., 1993, p. 294) and "shopping mall" (Powell, Farrar, & Cohen, 1985),
frequently used to characterize public schools, are conceptually not up to the task.




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Structural Effects in Education 125
the public sector with many all minority schools. Here is a case where it is unlikely that the
proportion of minority students in the sector will resemble that in the schools. The case also
opens the issue of whether schools with minority student proportions of different sizes make
the same social, programmatic, instructional, and curricular provisions and achieve a common
school effect to the same degree. Although a communitarian climate combined with a unified
academic curriculum may be associated with a weak relation between social background and
achievement (the common school effect) calculated on a sectoral population of students, it is
equally plausible that such an association can vary or not appear school-by-school and can be
attributed to the varied ways schools deal with their student populations. A test of this effect
needs to rely on within-school variations—a persuasive one on school populations with substantial
representations of racial/ethnic groups. It should also attend to the identification of
mechanisms and whether they differ by school composition.
The findings (Bryk, et al., 1993; Lee & Bryk, 1989) showed that sector differences in
achievement diminish in size when the academic organization of schools is taken into account,
and that sector differences favoring Catholic schools in teacher commitment and in student
engagement are diminished when communitarian aspects of schools are introduced. How to
interpret this evidence depends on how one understands academic and communitarian organization
and their measurement (Bryk and associates, 1993, p. 286). Again questions about
mechanisms arise, two in particular: one pertains to how school organization is formulated;
the other to whether student selection can account for both the Catholic school advantage and
the common school effect.
The treatment of academic and communitarian school organization rests on global characterizations
of schools (principals' reports about schools, school averages, and such characterizes
as size and sector [Bryk and associates, 1993, p. 189], but not on within-school variation
in structure and operation). The examination of how conmiunitarian organization (Bryk
and associates, 1993, pp. 279-282) relates to teacher commitment and to student engagement
by school is based on a combination of 23 measures into a "community index," a procedure
that does not reveal the patterning of these measures within schools, how they function to
influence achievement, or how they function to produce a common school effect. The procedures
employed in the chapter "Variations in Internal Operations" were based on school-level
summaries of internal operations, not on within-school variations, the same logic of contextual
analysis found in earlier studies (Brookover et al., 1979; McDill & Rigsby, 1973; Rutter
et al., 1979).
With respect to mechanisms, the question is whether school influences can be demonstrated
without also taking into account the constituent units of school organization, the activities
of teachers and school officials, and the contingencies they face. Although the observations
of school personnel can be summarized to provide a global indication of community and
solidarity, and schools can be compared on that basis, one does not know whether, for example,
all departments, teachers of the same subject or grade, or subgroups organized on
some other basis share this quality or whether community and solidarity of units can create
cleavages in the whole, as Loveless (1994) has shown in connection with the untracking issue.
Teachers and administrators may agree on school goals and values when framed abstractly but
not necessarily on specific goals and the means to accomplish them, and they might not employ
those means in their activities. As Pallas (1988) observed, climate differences between
schools are modest in size, substantial variation and disagreement exist within schools as
expressed in teachers' reports about what the climate is, and climate can be viewed as an
outcome as well as a cause. The use of global organizational indices tends to obscure these




126 Robert Dreeben
differences, the patterns of action and interaction in the work of schools, the directionality of
causation, and the conceptual basis on which an argument about mechanisms can be constructed.
The selectivity controversy pertains to whether the advantage of Catholic schools over
public schools is attributable to academic and communitarian organization or to advantaged
students selecting Catholic schools. It has been treated largely as a problem in assessing selfselection
bias (Murnane, Newstead, & Olsen, 1985; Neal, 1997) in forming the composition
of school populations. This perspective ignores selectivity from the supply side as a component
of internal school structure and operation, while fastening on the demand (household
choice) side of enrollment. What's more, it neglects selectivity as an aspect of school operation.
Bryk and associates (1993) observed that Catholic sector secondary schools express
their academic and communitarian values in curricular and social organization. Making these
values known (see the example of one school's statement of its philosophy [pp. 146-147]) is
part of the student selection process, of establishing self-definitions, or of establishing charters
(Meyer, 1970, 1977), a practice also familiar to private to magnet, and to vocational
schools. Parents selecting a kind of school and schooling is partly a response to what schools
publicize about themselves. If schools claim to be academic and possess certain social and
spiritual qualities, students and their parents interested in this kind of schooling (Greeley,
1982, p. 22), irrespective of background, will be more likely to seek admission than those
looking for something different. From the pool of admission seekers, schools select students
they believe will prosper under their academic regimen and form of social life. Selection
occurs on both the supply and the demand sides. On the former, schools that can do so select
students; those that cannot select them use other means to adapt the school's offerings, academic
and social, to the population. Controversies about selection bias have concentrated on
the wealth and status advantages of the Catholic school population, as if such advantages were
proxies for academic proclivities and talents. Bryk and associates' (1993, p. 252) evidence
showed academic background correlating 0.21 and 0.30 with social class and -0.04 and -0.11
with minority status among Catholic students and public school students, respectively. These
weak relationships indicate the leeway that academic schools have in selecting academically
interested students whatever their class and minority origins. Given the claims for Catholic
school advantage and a common school effect, selection on both the supply and the demand
sides needs to be examined as a matter of internal school organization and functioning. It
cannot be addressed convincingly through structural effects reasoning that relies on such broad
categorical measures as sector and averaged school properties.
The nonselectivity of most public schools raises similar issues. The availability of Catholic,
private, and public charter and magnet schools alters the attendance distribution of the schoolgoing
population, at least in metropolitan areas. When students attending these schools leave
the larger pool, nonselective public schools become the only option for those who remain. The
schools must accordingly organize themselves to serve populations diverse in the languages
spoken, the variety of vocational and academic interests, degrees of student indifference and
inconsistency of attendance, the mix of special education constituencies, and the presence of
students with disrupted family lives. For characterizing the variety of organizational and programmatic
alternatives present in the public school domain (see Page, 1999), for a relevant
discussion), the available evidence from large surveys has been insufficiently informative to
indicate how they operate under prevailing conditions; the opprobrious metaphors of "bureaucracy"
(Bryk et al., 1993, p. 294) and "shopping mall" (Powell, Farrar, & Cohen, 1985),
frequently used to characterize public schools, are conceptually not up to the task.




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Efek struktural dalam Pendidikan 125
sektor publik dengan banyak semua sekolah minoritas. Berikut ini adalah kasus di mana tidak mungkin bahwa
proporsi siswa minoritas di sektor ini akan menyerupai di sekolah-sekolah. Kasus ini juga
membuka masalah apakah sekolah dengan proporsi mahasiswa minoritas ukuran yang berbeda membuat
sama sosial, program, instruksional, dan kurikuler ketentuan dan mencapai umum
efek sekolah ke tingkat yang sama. Meskipun iklim komunitarian dikombinasikan dengan terpadu
kurikulum akademik dapat dikaitkan dengan hubungan yang lemah antara latar belakang sosial dan
prestasi (efek sekolah umum) dihitung pada populasi sektoral siswa, itu adalah
sama-sama masuk akal bahwa hubungan semacam itu dapat bervariasi atau tidak muncul sekolah -dengan-sekolah dan dapat
dikaitkan dengan cara-cara yang bervariasi sekolah berurusan dengan populasi siswa mereka. Sebuah tes dari efek ini
perlu mengandalkan di sekolah-variasi-satu persuasif pada populasi sekolah dengan substansial
pernyataan dari kelompok ras / etnis. Hal ini juga harus hadir untuk identifikasi
mekanisme dan apakah mereka berbeda dengan komposisi sekolah.
Temuan (Bryk, et al, 1993;. Lee & Bryk, 1989) menunjukkan bahwa perbedaan sektor dalam
pencapaian mengecil ketika organisasi akademik sekolah adalah diperhitungkan,
dan bahwa perbedaan sektor mendukung sekolah-sekolah Katolik di komitmen guru dan siswa
keterlibatan berkurang ketika aspek komunitarian sekolah diperkenalkan. Bagaimana
menafsirkan bukti ini tergantung pada bagaimana seseorang memahami organisasi akademik dan komunitarian
dan pengukuran mereka (Bryk dan rekan, 1993, hal. 286). Sekali lagi pertanyaan tentang
mekanisme muncul, dua khususnya: satu berkaitan dengan bagaimana organisasi sekolah dirumuskan,
yang lain apakah seleksi mahasiswa dapat menjelaskan kedua keuntungan sekolah Katolik dan
efek sekolah umum.
Pengobatan organisasi sekolah akademik dan komunitarian bertumpu pada dunia penokohan
sekolah (laporan kepala sekolah tentang sekolah, rata-rata sekolah, dan ciri seperti
ukuran dan sektor [Bryk dan rekan, 1993, hal. 189], tetapi tidak pada waktu-sekolah variasi
dalam struktur dan operasi). Pemeriksaan organisasi bagaimana conmiunitarian (Bryk
dan rekan, 1993, hlm. 279-282) berkaitan dengan komitmen guru dan keterlibatan siswa
dengan sekolah didasarkan pada kombinasi dari 23 langkah menjadi "index masyarakat," prosedur
yang tidak mengungkapkan yang pola tindakan ini di sekolah-sekolah, bagaimana mereka berfungsi untuk
mempengaruhi prestasi, atau bagaimana mereka berfungsi untuk menghasilkan efek sekolah umum. Prosedur
yang digunakan dalam bab "Variasi Operasi internal" didasarkan pada tingkat sekolah
ringkasan operasi internal, bukan pada waktu-sekolah variasi, logika yang sama kontekstual
analisis ditemukan dalam studi sebelumnya (Brookover et al, 1979;. McDill & Rigsby, 1973; Rutter
.. et al, 1979)
Sehubungan dengan mekanisme, pertanyaannya adalah apakah pengaruh sekolah dapat ditunjukkan
tanpa juga memperhitungkan unit konstituen dari organisasi sekolah, kegiatan
guru dan pegawai sekolah, dan kontinjensi mereka wajah. Meskipun pengamatan
personil sekolah dapat diringkas untuk memberikan indikasi global masyarakat dan
solidaritas, dan sekolah dapat dibandingkan atas dasar itu, kita tidak tahu apakah, misalnya,
semua departemen, guru dari subjek yang sama atau kelas, atau subkelompok diselenggarakan pada
beberapa saham dasar lain kualitas ini atau apakah masyarakat dan solidaritas unit dapat membuat
perpecahan di keseluruhan, sebagai Loveless (1994) telah menunjukkan sehubungan dengan masalah untracking.
Guru dan administrator mungkin setuju pada tujuan sekolah dan nilai-nilai ketika dibingkai secara abstrak, tetapi
belum tentu pada tujuan tertentu dan sarana untuk mencapai mereka, dan mereka mungkin tidak mempekerjakan
mereka berarti dalam kegiatan mereka. Sebagai Pallas (1988) mengamati, perbedaan iklim antara
sekolah sederhana dalam ukuran, variasi besar dan ketidaksepakatan ada dalam sekolah sebagai
dinyatakan dalam laporan guru tentang apa iklim, dan iklim dapat dilihat sebagai
hasil serta penyebab. Penggunaan indeks organisasi global yang cenderung mengaburkan ini 126 Robert Dreeben perbedaan, pola tindakan dan interaksi dalam pekerjaan sekolah, kemampuan pengarahan penyebab, dan dasar konseptual yang argumen tentang mekanisme dapat dibangun. The Popper terkait selektivitas Kontroversi apakah keuntungan dari sekolah-sekolah Katolik selama sekolah umum disebabkan organisasi akademik dan komunitarian atau diuntungkan siswa memilih sekolah Katolik. Telah diperlakukan sebagian besar sebagai masalah dalam menilai selfselection bias (Murnane, Newstead, & Olsen, 1985; Neal, 1997) dalam membentuk komposisi populasi sekolah. Perspektif ini mengabaikan selektivitas dari sisi penawaran sebagai komponen struktur internal sekolah dan operasi, sedangkan ikat pada permintaan (rumah tangga pilihan) sisi pendaftaran. Terlebih lagi, ia mengabaikan selektivitas sebagai aspek operasional sekolah. Bryk dan rekan (1993) mengamati bahwa sekolah menengah sektor Katolik mengungkapkan nilai-nilai akademik dan komunitarian dalam organisasi kurikuler dan sosial. Membuat ini nilai-nilai yang dikenal (lihat contoh pernyataan salah satu sekolah filsafat yang [pp. 146-147]) merupakan bagian dari proses seleksi mahasiswa, membangun diri definisi, atau membangun charter (Meyer, 1970, 1977), sebuah Praktek juga akrab bagi swasta untuk magnet, dan kejuruan sekolah. Orang tua memilih jenis sekolah dan sekolah sebagian merupakan respon terhadap apa sekolah mempublikasikan tentang diri mereka sendiri. Jika sekolah mengklaim akademik dan memiliki beberapa sosial dan kualitas spiritual, siswa dan orang tua mereka tertarik dalam jenis sekolah (Greeley, 1982, hal. 22), terlepas dari latar belakang, akan lebih mungkin untuk mencari masuk daripada yang mencari sesuatu yang berbeda. Dari kolam pencari masuk, sekolah memilih siswa mereka percaya akan makmur di bawah rejimen akademik dan bentuk kehidupan sosial. Seleksi terjadi pada kedua pasokan dan sisi permintaan. Pada mantan, sekolah yang dapat melakukannya pilih siswa; orang-orang yang tidak dapat memilih mereka menggunakan cara lain untuk beradaptasi persembahan sekolah, akademik dan sosial, untuk populasi. Kontroversi tentang bias seleksi telah berkonsentrasi pada kekayaan dan status keuntungan dari populasi sekolah Katolik, seolah-olah keuntungan seperti itu proxy untuk kecenderungan akademik dan bakat. Bryk dan rekan '(1993, hal. 252) bukti menunjukkan latar belakang akademis menghubungkan 0,21 dan 0,30 dengan kelas sosial dan -0,04 dan -0,11 dengan status minoritas di kalangan mahasiswa Katolik dan siswa sekolah umum, masing-masing. Ini hubungan yang lemah menunjukkan kelonggaran bahwa sekolah akademik miliki dalam memilih akademis mahasiswa yang tertarik apapun kelas dan minoritas mereka asal. Mengingat klaim Katolik keuntungan sekolah dan efek sekolah umum, pemilihan pada kedua pasokan dan permintaan pihak perlu diperiksa sebagai masalah organisasi internal sekolah dan fungsi. Hal tidak dapat diatasi secara meyakinkan melalui struktur efek penalaran yang bergantung pada luas seperti tindakan kategoris sebagai sektor dan rata-rata properti sekolah. Yang nonselectivity dari kebanyakan sekolah umum menimbulkan masalah serupa. Ketersediaan Katolik, swasta, dan piagam dan magnet publik sekolah mengubah distribusi kehadiran bersekolah penduduk, setidaknya di daerah metropolitan. Ketika siswa yang menghadiri sekolah tersebut meninggalkan kolam yang lebih besar, sekolah umum nonselektif menjadi satu-satunya pilihan bagi mereka yang tetap. Para sekolah harus sesuai mengorganisir diri untuk melayani populasi yang beragam dalam bahasa lisan, berbagai kepentingan kejuruan dan akademis, tingkat ketidakpedulian mahasiswa dan inkonsistensi kehadiran, campuran konstituen pendidikan khusus, dan adanya siswa dengan kehidupan keluarga terganggu. Untuk mencirikan berbagai organisasi dan program alternatif hadir dalam domain sekolah umum (lihat Page, 1999), untuk yang relevan diskusi), bukti yang tersedia dari survei besar telah kurang informatif untuk menunjukkan bagaimana mereka beroperasi di bawah kondisi yang berlaku; metafora hina "birokrasi" (Bryk et al., 1993, hal. 294) dan "pusat perbelanjaan" (Powell, Farrar, & Cohen, 1985), sering digunakan untuk menandai sekolah umum, secara konseptual tidak untuk tugas itu.























































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