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Notes(1) Useful descriptions of Islamic banking are contained in Ahmad (1984), Karsten (1982), and Pryor (1985).(2) In Iran and Pakistan all banks are now legally prohibited from engaging in interest-based transactions; in other Countries interest-free banks co-exist with conventional banks. For a discussion of the growth of Islamic banking, see Fahim Khan (1983).(3) A sampling of writings on the subject include, among others, Ahmad (1952), Kahf (1978), Ahmad (1984), and the papers in Ahmad etal. (1983).(4) See, for example, Siddiqi (1982), Kahf (1982), Chapra (1982), Khan (1982), Uzair (1982), and Ahmad (1984).(5) For a discussion of this issue, see Ahmad (1984).(6) Other services would presumably include the transfer of funds, foreign exchange facilities, the issue of bank drafts and letters of credit, and share brokerage.(7) See Khan (1986).(8) Any losses incurred by a bank would not affect its transaction deposit liabilities as these would be fully covered.(9) Even in cases where there is no official deposit insurance scheme, the government is likely to step in tocompensate depositors when a bank faces a crisis and potential bankruptcy.(10) For a discussion of the type of formula that could be used, see Ahmad (1984).(11) This does not imply that the return on investment deposits will be constant, since profits will normallyfluctuate.(12) These are basically variants of the system advocated by Henry Simons (1945) in connection with the banking crisis of the 1930s. A similar proposal has been made more recently by Kareken (1985).(13) For a formal analysis of the process, see Khan (1986).(14) As shown by Ahmad (1984), these types of transactions can be strongly defended on religious grounds, and there is no dispute among scholars on their consistency with Islamic law. There is less certainty regarding the other forms of financing discussed later.(15) This arrangement, therefore, effectively places human capital on par with financial capital.(16) This method of converting to a daily product basis is suggested by Ahmad (1984).(17) Such companies have been established in Pakistan.(18) The "participation term certificate" instituted in Pakistan since 1981 is one example of such instruments.(19) Some Muslim scholars argue that short-term consumption loans should be made by banks to needy borrowers on an interest-free basis, presumably using the resources obtained from transaction deposits. As not all borrowers can be classified as "needy", and it is unlikely that the resources from transaction deposits would be sufficient to meet demand, alternatives to profit sharing must be developed.(20) The mark up method is also employed in financing foreign trade by the Islamic Development Bank in Jeddah. In Pakistan this technique has been used for bank financing of commodity operations of the government and public sector agencies.(21) Assuming, of course, that the item has not been insured by a third party.(22) See Ahmad (1984).(23) The government does not appear explicitly in the model. One can either assume that the government is part of the public or the central bank.(24) It is assumed for simplicity that the public cannot participate in this market.(25) Financing schemes involving mark up, deferred delivery, or leasing, as discussed in Section II, are not considered.(26) Since Db = Fb this definition of rb implicitly assumes that g = l.(27) Changes in the stock of capital would be equal to investment, i.e., DK = I.(28) This budget constraint is given by: (DDp + I - DFp - S) + (DFb + DRb - DDb - DEb) + (DEc - DRc) º 0.(29) A dynamic version of this basic model is presented in Khan (1985).(30) As the behavioral equations in the model are assumed to be linear, this assumption allows us to drop the constant terms.(31) Recall that the rate of return on bank loans is equal to the rate of return on investment deposits.(32) Strictly speaking, the sign of the parameter a3 is ambiguous, but this assumption does not affect the analysis.(33) Even with this simple system of four equations the analytical solutions are quite difficult and time consuming to obtain. Any increase in the number of equations to take in account other financial as sets would probably make the system impossible to solve.
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