CHARATERISTICS OF PRIMING EFFECTSResearch utilizing priming methodolog terjemahan - CHARATERISTICS OF PRIMING EFFECTSResearch utilizing priming methodolog Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

CHARATERISTICS OF PRIMING EFFECTSRe

CHARATERISTICS OF PRIMING EFFECTS
Research utilizing priming methodologies soon demonstrated that not all primes are the same. Consequently, the properties of priming itself have been investigated. Research on priming has demonstrated three important characteristics of priming. First, the effect of a prime dissipates with time. Cognitive psychologists have shown that the activation level of a node will dissipate over time if no additional source of activation is present. Recent primes have more effect on judgments or behaviors than temporally distant primes (Higgins, Bargh, & Lombardi, 1985). Recency simply refers to the time lag between the prime and the target (e.g., the time between seeing a gun on TV and seeing an ambiguous behavior that could be interpreted as hostile). Returning to the metaphor of a water pump, if the pump has not been used for a while, it will no longer pump water without being primed again. Eventually, given no more activation, the activation level of the node returns to its resting state and is no longer considered to be primed. With cognitive tasks such as lexical decision tasks, which involve judgments of whether a string of letters is a word, or attitude priming tasks, which involve judgments of whether a word has positive or negative connotations, the priming effect dissipates in less than a minute (Higgins et al., 1985). However, in tasks that involve social judgments or evaluations of a social stimulus, the priming effect can last up to 15 to 20 minutes and possibly up to one hour (Roskos-Ewoldsen et al., 2007).
Second, primes that are stronger will tend to have stronger effects on people’s judgments and behavior. A stronger prime will result in higher activation levels in the target item, which will take more time to dissipate than a target item whose activation level is lower due to a weaker prime (Higgins et al., 1985). One of the problems with discussions of prime strength involves exactly what makes a prime stronger. Typically, the strength or intensity of a prime is manipulated either through the frequency of the priming event (e.g., a single exposure to a gun vs. five exposures to a gun in quick succession) or the duration of the priming event (e.g., 15 minutes of exposure versus 1 minute).
Third, as mentioned earlier, primes tend to have stronger effects on situations that are ambiguous (Otten & Stapel, 2007). Recall the Graham and Hudley (1994) study described earlier regarding intentionality judgments of an ambiguous shove after being primed with related sentences. Compare these ambiguous situations with one that is not ambiguous, such as a driver making a rude gesture at you and then cutting you off in traffic. The latter situation is perceived as hostile regardless of the presence of earlier primes.
A final point about the nature of priming is the accessibility of a concept when it is at rest, or prior to its being primed. Earlier it was noted that each concept is hypothesized to have an activation threshold, and a concept is activated in memory when its activation threshold is exceeded. Concepts can vary in how high their resting level of activity is compared with their thresholds. This means that concepts vary in how much additional activity is needed for them to fire. Those constructs that have “low activation thresholds” (i.e., high resting levels of activity relative to the threshold) are said to be highly accessible in memory. These concepts come to mind easily. Conversely, concepts with “high activation thresholds” (i.e., low activity levels relative to the threshold) take more energy to activate in memory; these concepts have low accessibility. These concepts come to mind with difficulty. For example, the name of the person who leads Al-Qaeda (Osama bin Laden) is probably highly accessible for most people in the United States. However, the name of the person who leads the United Nations (Ban Ki-moon) is probably either not very accessible or not available in memory.
At some point, the accessibility of a concept can become so high that it has chronically high activity (see research by Bargh, Bond, Lombardi, & Tota, 1986). In the attitudinal domain, someone’s attitude toward cockroaches is probably chronically highly accessible from memory. When people see a cockroach, they do not have to think about whether they like cockroaches. Instead, their attitude toward cockroaches is activated from memory without conscious effort. On the other hand, someone’s attitude toward Tibetan food is probably not chronically accessible. If asked what their attitude is toward Tibetan food, people may have to actively retrieve that attitude from memory or create the attitude on the spot (Roskos-Ewoldsen & Fazio, 1997). Chronically accessible concepts can be primed so that they are temporarily even more accessible from memory (Roskos-Ewoldsen et al., 2007). Nevertheless, without some form of reinforcement, even chronically accessible concepts eventually become less accessible across time (Grant & Logan, 1993).
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CHARATERISTICS EFEK PRIMINGPenelitian yang memanfaatkan priming metodologi segera menunjukkan bahwa tidak semua bilangan prima yang sama. Akibatnya, sifat-sifat priming itu sendiri telah diselidiki. Penelitian mengenai priming telah menunjukkan tiga karakteristik priming yang penting. Pertama, efek Perdana memboroskan dengan waktu. Psikolog kognitif telah menunjukkan bahwa tingkat aktivasi sebuah node akan menghilang dari waktu ke waktu jika ada sumber tambahan aktivasi hadir. Bilangan prima hari memiliki efek lebih pada penilaian atau perilaku daripada bilangan prima temporal jauh (Higgins, Bargh, & Lombardi, 1985). Jangka waktu kunjungan terakhir hanya mengacu pada waktu jeda antara Perdana dan target (misalnya, waktu antara melihat pistol di TV dan melihat perilaku ambigu yang bisa diartikan sebagai bermusuhan). Kembali ke metafora pompa air, jika pompa belum digunakan untuk sementara, itu tidak akan lagi pompa air tanpa sedang dipikirkan lagi. Akhirnya, mengingat aktivasi tidak lebih, tingkat aktivasi node kembali ke keadaan istirahat dan tidak lagi dianggap prima. Dengan kognitif tugas-tugas seperti tugas keputusan leksikal, yang melibatkan penilaian Apakah serangkaian Surat adalah sebuah kata, atau tugas-tugas priming sikap, yang melibatkan penilaian Apakah kata mempunyai konotasi positif atau negatif, efek priming memboroskan dalam waktu kurang dari satu menit (Higgins et al., 1985). Namun, dalam tugas-tugas yang melibatkan penilaian sosial atau evaluasi stimulus sosial, efek priming yang dapat berlangsung hingga 15 sampai 20 menit dan mungkin sampai satu jam (Roskos-Ewoldsen et al., 2007).Kedua, bilangan prima yang lebih kuat akan cenderung memiliki efek yang kuat pada penilaian dan perilaku masyarakat. Perdana kuat akan menghasilkan tingkat aktivasi yang lebih tinggi di target item, yang akan mengambil lebih banyak waktu untuk mengusir daripada item target yang aktivasi tingkat lebih rendah karena Perdana lemah (Higgins et al., 1985). Salah satu masalah dengan diskusi dari utama kekuatan melibatkan persis apa yang membuat Perdana yang kuat. Biasanya, kekuatan atau intensitas Perdana dimanipulasi baik melalui frekuensi acara priming (misalnya, eksposur tunggal untuk pistol vs lima eksposur untuk pistol dalam pergantian yang cepat) atau durasi acara priming (misalnya, 15 menit dari paparan versus 1 menit).Ketiga, seperti disebutkan sebelumnya, bilangan prima cenderung memiliki efek yang kuat pada situasi yang ambigu (Otten & Stapel, 2007). Ingat Graham dan Hudley (1994) studi dijelaskan sebelumnya mengenai penilaian intensionalitas bertolak ambigu setelah sedang dipikirkan dengan kalimat-kalimat yang terkait. Membandingkan situasi ini ambigu dengan salah satu yang tidak ambigu, seperti seorang sopir membuat sikap kasar pada Anda dan kemudian memotong Anda di lalu lintas. Situasi kedua dianggap sebagai bermusuhan terlepas dari kehadiran bilangan prima sebelumnya.Titik akhir tentang sifat priming adalah aksesibilitas konsep ketika istirahat, atau sebelum yang sedang dipikirkan. Sebelumnya telah disebutkan bahwa masing-masing konsep dihipotesiskan untuk memiliki aktivasi ambang batas, dan konsep yang diaktifkan dalam memori ketika ambang aktivasi terlampaui. Konsep dapat bervariasi dalam seberapa tinggi tingkat aktivitas mereka beristirahat dibandingkan dengan ambang batas mereka. Ini berarti bahwa konsep bervariasi dalam berapa banyak aktivitas tambahan diperlukan bagi mereka untuk api. Konstruksi tersebut yang memiliki "aktivasi rendah ambang" (yaitu, tinggi beristirahat tingkat aktivitas relatif ambang batas) dikatakan sangat mudah diakses dalam memori. Konsep-konsep ini datang ke pikiran dengan mudah. Sebaliknya, konsep dengan "aktivasi tinggi ambang" (yaitu, aktivitas rendah tingkat relatif ambang batas) mengambil lebih banyak energi untuk mengaktifkan di memori; konsep-konsep ini memiliki aksesibilitas rendah. Konsep-konsep ini datang ke pikiran dengan kesulitan. Misalnya, nama orang yang memimpin Al-Qaeda (Osama bin Laden) mungkin sangat mudah diakses bagi kebanyakan orang di Amerika Serikat. Namun, nama orang yang memimpin Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (Ban Ki-moon) adalah mungkin tidak baik sangat mudah atau tidak tersedia di memori.Di beberapa titik, aksesibilitas konsep yang dapat menjadi begitu tinggi bahwa ia memiliki aktivitas kronis tinggi (Lihat penelitian oleh Bargh, James Bond, Lombardi, & Tota, 1986). Dalam domain sikap, sikap seseorang terhadap kecoa mungkin kronis sangat mudah diakses dari memori. Ketika orang melihat sebuah kecoa, mereka tidak memiliki untuk berpikir tentang apakah mereka seperti kecoa. Sebaliknya, sikap mereka terhadap kecoa diaktifkan dari memori tanpa usaha sadar. Di sisi lain, sikap seseorang terhadap Tibet makanan ini mungkin tidak kronis dapat diakses. Jika bertanya apa sikap mereka terhadap Tibet makanan, orang mungkin memiliki aktif mengambil sikap dari memori atau membuat sikap di tempat (Roskos-Ewoldsen & Fazio, 1997). Kronis dapat diakses konsep dapat dipikirkan sehingga mereka sementara bahkan lebih mudah diakses dari memori (Roskos-Ewoldsen et al., 2007). Namun demikian, tanpa beberapa bentuk penguatan, bahkan kronis dapat diakses konsep akhirnya menjadi kurang diakses seluruh waktu (hibah & Logan, 1993).
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CHARATERISTICS OF PRIMING EFFECTS
Research utilizing priming methodologies soon demonstrated that not all primes are the same. Consequently, the properties of priming itself have been investigated. Research on priming has demonstrated three important characteristics of priming. First, the effect of a prime dissipates with time. Cognitive psychologists have shown that the activation level of a node will dissipate over time if no additional source of activation is present. Recent primes have more effect on judgments or behaviors than temporally distant primes (Higgins, Bargh, & Lombardi, 1985). Recency simply refers to the time lag between the prime and the target (e.g., the time between seeing a gun on TV and seeing an ambiguous behavior that could be interpreted as hostile). Returning to the metaphor of a water pump, if the pump has not been used for a while, it will no longer pump water without being primed again. Eventually, given no more activation, the activation level of the node returns to its resting state and is no longer considered to be primed. With cognitive tasks such as lexical decision tasks, which involve judgments of whether a string of letters is a word, or attitude priming tasks, which involve judgments of whether a word has positive or negative connotations, the priming effect dissipates in less than a minute (Higgins et al., 1985). However, in tasks that involve social judgments or evaluations of a social stimulus, the priming effect can last up to 15 to 20 minutes and possibly up to one hour (Roskos-Ewoldsen et al., 2007).
Second, primes that are stronger will tend to have stronger effects on people’s judgments and behavior. A stronger prime will result in higher activation levels in the target item, which will take more time to dissipate than a target item whose activation level is lower due to a weaker prime (Higgins et al., 1985). One of the problems with discussions of prime strength involves exactly what makes a prime stronger. Typically, the strength or intensity of a prime is manipulated either through the frequency of the priming event (e.g., a single exposure to a gun vs. five exposures to a gun in quick succession) or the duration of the priming event (e.g., 15 minutes of exposure versus 1 minute).
Third, as mentioned earlier, primes tend to have stronger effects on situations that are ambiguous (Otten & Stapel, 2007). Recall the Graham and Hudley (1994) study described earlier regarding intentionality judgments of an ambiguous shove after being primed with related sentences. Compare these ambiguous situations with one that is not ambiguous, such as a driver making a rude gesture at you and then cutting you off in traffic. The latter situation is perceived as hostile regardless of the presence of earlier primes.
A final point about the nature of priming is the accessibility of a concept when it is at rest, or prior to its being primed. Earlier it was noted that each concept is hypothesized to have an activation threshold, and a concept is activated in memory when its activation threshold is exceeded. Concepts can vary in how high their resting level of activity is compared with their thresholds. This means that concepts vary in how much additional activity is needed for them to fire. Those constructs that have “low activation thresholds” (i.e., high resting levels of activity relative to the threshold) are said to be highly accessible in memory. These concepts come to mind easily. Conversely, concepts with “high activation thresholds” (i.e., low activity levels relative to the threshold) take more energy to activate in memory; these concepts have low accessibility. These concepts come to mind with difficulty. For example, the name of the person who leads Al-Qaeda (Osama bin Laden) is probably highly accessible for most people in the United States. However, the name of the person who leads the United Nations (Ban Ki-moon) is probably either not very accessible or not available in memory.
At some point, the accessibility of a concept can become so high that it has chronically high activity (see research by Bargh, Bond, Lombardi, & Tota, 1986). In the attitudinal domain, someone’s attitude toward cockroaches is probably chronically highly accessible from memory. When people see a cockroach, they do not have to think about whether they like cockroaches. Instead, their attitude toward cockroaches is activated from memory without conscious effort. On the other hand, someone’s attitude toward Tibetan food is probably not chronically accessible. If asked what their attitude is toward Tibetan food, people may have to actively retrieve that attitude from memory or create the attitude on the spot (Roskos-Ewoldsen & Fazio, 1997). Chronically accessible concepts can be primed so that they are temporarily even more accessible from memory (Roskos-Ewoldsen et al., 2007). Nevertheless, without some form of reinforcement, even chronically accessible concepts eventually become less accessible across time (Grant & Logan, 1993).
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