Environmental taxes can be levied on (a) the pollutant itself (i.e., o terjemahan - Environmental taxes can be levied on (a) the pollutant itself (i.e., o Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

Environmental taxes can be levied o

Environmental taxes can be levied on (a) the pollutant itself (i.e., on effluents, emissions, or solid waste), or (b) on final products associated with environmental externalities. Taxes on pollutants, known also as pollution charges, are applied directly to the offending substances thereby providing the maximum incentive and flexibility for the polluter to reduce pollution; therefore pollution charges are more efficient than indirect taxes on inputs or final products. The latter does not provide an incentive to limit the pollutant itself, only to use less of the input or produce (consume) less of the final product. For example, taxes on products or inputs do not provide incentives for the development and installation of pollution abatement technologies. Only when the pollution-product coefficient is fixed are pollution charges and polluting product taxes equivalent. Depending on the elasticity of supply and demand, part or all of the pollution charge would be reflected in the price of the final product—a strong incentive for the polluter to switch to products that are less harmful to the environment.
Emission and effluent taxes can be structured in such a way as to provide a progressive incentive for pollution control. For example, in Germany, polluters who more than meet the set effluent standards are charged a lower rate while those who violate the standards pay a higher rate than the charge set for those who meet the standard. Emission taxes face a number of difficulties: (a) to set the correct tax we need estimates of the marginal benefit and marginal cost curves to determine the optimal pollution level; (b) a low tax does not provide much of an incentive for environmentally sound behavior, yet higher tax rates require complex tax structures and administrative mechanisms; and (c) taxes based on actual discharges involve significantly higher administration and enforcement costs than taxes on products.
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Environmental taxes can be levied on (a) the pollutant itself (i.e., on effluents, emissions, or solid waste), or (b) on final products associated with environmental externalities. Taxes on pollutants, known also as pollution charges, are applied directly to the offending substances thereby providing the maximum incentive and flexibility for the polluter to reduce pollution; therefore pollution charges are more efficient than indirect taxes on inputs or final products. The latter does not provide an incentive to limit the pollutant itself, only to use less of the input or produce (consume) less of the final product. For example, taxes on products or inputs do not provide incentives for the development and installation of pollution abatement technologies. Only when the pollution-product coefficient is fixed are pollution charges and polluting product taxes equivalent. Depending on the elasticity of supply and demand, part or all of the pollution charge would be reflected in the price of the final product—a strong incentive for the polluter to switch to products that are less harmful to the environment.
Emission and effluent taxes can be structured in such a way as to provide a progressive incentive for pollution control. For example, in Germany, polluters who more than meet the set effluent standards are charged a lower rate while those who violate the standards pay a higher rate than the charge set for those who meet the standard. Emission taxes face a number of difficulties: (a) to set the correct tax we need estimates of the marginal benefit and marginal cost curves to determine the optimal pollution level; (b) a low tax does not provide much of an incentive for environmentally sound behavior, yet higher tax rates require complex tax structures and administrative mechanisms; and (c) taxes based on actual discharges involve significantly higher administration and enforcement costs than taxes on products.
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Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:[Salinan]
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Pajak lingkungan dapat dikenakan pada (a) polutan itu sendiri (yaitu, pada limbah, emisi, atau limbah padat), atau (b) dari produk akhir yang terkait dengan eksternalitas lingkungan. Pajak atas polutan, yang dikenal juga sebagai beban polusi, diterapkan langsung ke zat menyinggung sehingga memberikan insentif maksimum dan fleksibilitas untuk pencemar untuk mengurangi polusi; Oleh karena itu biaya polusi lebih efisien daripada pajak tidak langsung pada input atau produk akhir. Yang terakhir ini tidak menyediakan insentif untuk membatasi polutan itu sendiri, hanya menggunakan kurang dari input atau menghasilkan (mengkonsumsi) kurang dari produk akhir. Misalnya, pajak atas produk atau input tidak memberikan insentif untuk pengembangan dan instalasi teknologi pengurangan polusi. Hanya ketika koefisien polusi produk tetap adalah biaya polusi dan mencemari pajak produk setara. Tergantung pada elastisitas penawaran dan permintaan, sebagian atau seluruh biaya polusi akan tercermin dalam harga produk-insentif yang kuat akhir untuk pencemar untuk beralih ke produk yang kurang berbahaya bagi lingkungan.
Emisi dan limbah pajak dapat disusun sedemikian rupa untuk memberikan insentif progresif untuk pengendalian pencemaran. Misalnya, di Jerman, pencemar yang lebih dari memenuhi standar limbah set dikenai tarif yang lebih rendah sementara mereka yang melanggar standar membayar lebih tinggi daripada biaya yang ditetapkan bagi mereka yang memenuhi standar. Pajak emisi menghadapi sejumlah kesulitan: (a) untuk mengatur pajak yang benar kita perlu perkiraan manfaat marjinal dan kurva biaya marjinal untuk menentukan tingkat pencemaran yang optimal; (B) pajak rendah tidak memberikan banyak insentif bagi perilaku yang ramah lingkungan, namun tarif pajak yang lebih tinggi membutuhkan struktur pajak yang kompleks dan mekanisme administratif; dan (c) pajak berdasarkan debit aktual melibatkan administrasi dan penegakan signifikan lebih tinggi daripada biaya pajak atas produk.
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