Public Sector Employment and Educat

Public Sector Employment and Education
K. Hinchliffe

The public sector as a source of employment for graduates of the educationsystem is the focus of this article. In many countries, particularly low income ones, the public sector is the majority or main employer. The nature of public sector employment has been widely discussed in the literature on labor market segmentation and its role in determining several wider aspects of both employment and earnings structures, and the consequent effect on parts of the educational process, remains contentious.
Since the late 1960s, a great deal of attention in labor economics has concentrated on the supposed existence of segmented labor markets and the attempted refutation of this supposition by neoclassical/human capital economists. In segmentation theory, most public sector employment is viewed simply as one component of what is termed “primary segment employment” and share the characteristics of that segment along with parts of the bureaucratized private sector. In the firts section of this entry, therefore, broad elements of segmentation theory including hiring practices and internal labor markets are introduced and discussed as they relate to jobs in the primary segment. Despite this emphasis in the literature differentiating between job characteristics rather than between employment sectors (public/private), some economists continue to be concerned with wage and employment determination in the public sector under nonprofit-maximizing conditions and with comparing the outcomes to those in the private sector. This work is discussed in section 2. Finally, attention is concentrated on the public sector in less developed countries (LDCs). This separate treatment results from arguments thet the public sector’s dominance as an employer in these countries has particularly important repercussions on earnings level and structures, the demand for schooling, and the structure and quality of education itself.

1. Segmentation theory and the public sector
Until the late 1960s, the general issue of public versus private earnings and conditions of employment was not accorded a great deal of attention in the economics literature on developed market economies where the “prevailing wage rate” model had been used. In this model the public sector is simply regarded as just another price-taker accepting a market-determined rate. Regardless of differences in types of goods and services produced, the technology used , and profitability and ownership of establishment, the model supposes yhat competition in the labor market will ensure that all workers with the same economic characteristics will receive similar rate of pay. If differentials occur between the public and the private sectors, they are interpreted as the result of short-term adjustment lags. This is one of several positions associated with neoclassical economic theory which labor market segmentation theory has come to contest.
Segmentation theory, eith its central feature of a dual labor market, attempts to refute neoclassical assumptions of the existence of a single continuum of both workers and firms operating under conditions of perfect competition. In contrast, it asserts that the labor force is fragmented into groups with specific and permanent characteristics (race, sex, class, etc.) and that members of these groups face different sets of working conditions, which in turn are determined by a differentiated structure of labor demand. At its simplest, a dual labor market has been defined as one in which:
a. There is a pronounced division of jobs into higher and lower paying sectors, or primary and secondary segment;
b. Mobility across the boundary between these sectors is restricted;
c. Higher paid jobs are tied to promotional ladders while lower paid jobs have fewer opportunities for promotion; and
d. Higher paying jobs are relatively stable, while lower paid jobs are unstable (Loveridge and Mok 1979).
While there are variations among theorists as to the causes of segmentation ranging from technological determinism on the one hand to the concious division of the working class on the other, all segmentation theories attempt to establish that there are at least two types of job, aech with “ distinct criteria for hiring and advancement, supervisory procedures, working conditions and wage levels, and each with generally different groups who fill the jobs”. While the public sector invariably includes job requiring a very wide variety of skills and offering wide variations in pay, as well as many jobs in which only some of the criteria listed above are appropriate (e.g., stable but low paid), there is general agreement that the majority fall into the primary segment.
A central feature of segmentation models, and one which is said to be particularly relevant to a description of the public sector, is the existence of internal labor markets in primary segment jobs. Hiring practices in markets in the public sector and in the large private concerns center around sex, race, and particularly, educational qualifications. Whether these are used as proxies for cognitive or noncognitive productivity-en hancing characteristics, for measures of individual’s trainability, or simply as measurement to divide the work force is still debate.

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

Kerja sektor publik dan pendidikanK. HinchliffeSektor publik sebagai sumber pekerjaan bagi lulusan dari educationsystem adalah fokus dari artikel ini. Di banyak negara, terutama rendah pendapatan yang, sektor publik adalah mayoritas atau majikan utama. Sifat pekerjaan sektor publik telah banyak dibahas dalam literatur di segmentasi pasar tenaga kerja dan peranannya dalam menentukan beberapa aspek yang lebih luas dari struktur pekerjaan dan pendapatan, dan efek yang konsekuen pada bagian-bagian dari proses pendidikan, masih diperdebatkan.Sejak akhir 1960-an, banyak perhatian dalam kerja ekonomi telah berkonsentrasi pada keberadaan seharusnya pasar tenaga kerja tersegmentasi dan penyangkalan percobaan anggapan ini oleh ekonom modal neoklasik/manusia. Dalam teori segmentasi, kebanyakan kerja sektor publik dipandang sebagai salah satu komponen dari apa yang disebut "segmen utama kerja" dan berbagi karakteristik segmen itu bersama dengan bagian-bagian dari sektor swasta bureaucratized. Pada bagian pertama dari catatan ini, oleh karena itu, elemen-elemen yang luas dari teori segmentasi termasuk mempekerjakan praktek dan pasar tenaga kerja internal diperkenalkan dan dibahas karena mereka berhubungan dengan pekerjaan di segmen utama. Meskipun ini penekanan dalam literatur membedakan antara karakteristik pekerjaan, bukan antara sektor lapangan kerja (publik/swasta), beberapa ekonom terus khawatir dengan penetapan upah dan pekerjaan di sektor publik di bawah kondisi yang memaksimalkan nirlaba dan membandingkan hasil untuk orang-orang di sektor swasta. Karya ini dibahas dalam bagian 2. Akhirnya, perhatian terkonsentrasi pada sektor publik di negara-negara berkembang (LDCs). Perawatan ini terpisah hasil dari argumen thet dominasi sektor publik sebagai majikan di negara-negara ini memiliki dampak yang sangat penting pada tingkat pendapatan dan struktur, permintaan untuk sekolah, dan struktur dan mutu pendidikan itu sendiri.1. Segmentation theory and the public sectorUntil the late 1960s, the general issue of public versus private earnings and conditions of employment was not accorded a great deal of attention in the economics literature on developed market economies where the “prevailing wage rate” model had been used. In this model the public sector is simply regarded as just another price-taker accepting a market-determined rate. Regardless of differences in types of goods and services produced, the technology used , and profitability and ownership of establishment, the model supposes yhat competition in the labor market will ensure that all workers with the same economic characteristics will receive similar rate of pay. If differentials occur between the public and the private sectors, they are interpreted as the result of short-term adjustment lags. This is one of several positions associated with neoclassical economic theory which labor market segmentation theory has come to contest.Segmentation theory, eith its central feature of a dual labor market, attempts to refute neoclassical assumptions of the existence of a single continuum of both workers and firms operating under conditions of perfect competition. In contrast, it asserts that the labor force is fragmented into groups with specific and permanent characteristics (race, sex, class, etc.) and that members of these groups face different sets of working conditions, which in turn are determined by a differentiated structure of labor demand. At its simplest, a dual labor market has been defined as one in which:a. There is a pronounced division of jobs into higher and lower paying sectors, or primary and secondary segment;b. Mobility across the boundary between these sectors is restricted;c. Higher paid jobs are tied to promotional ladders while lower paid jobs have fewer opportunities for promotion; andd. Higher paying jobs are relatively stable, while lower paid jobs are unstable (Loveridge and Mok 1979).While there are variations among theorists as to the causes of segmentation ranging from technological determinism on the one hand to the concious division of the working class on the other, all segmentation theories attempt to establish that there are at least two types of job, aech with “ distinct criteria for hiring and advancement, supervisory procedures, working conditions and wage levels, and each with generally different groups who fill the jobs”. While the public sector invariably includes job requiring a very wide variety of skills and offering wide variations in pay, as well as many jobs in which only some of the criteria listed above are appropriate (e.g., stable but low paid), there is general agreement that the majority fall into the primary segment.Fitur utama dari model segmentasi, dan satu yang dikatakan sangat relevan ke Deskripsi sektor publik, adalah keberadaan pasar tenaga kerja internal di segmen utama pekerjaan. Menyewa praktik di pasar dalam sektor publik dan di pusat perhatian pribadi besar di sekitar seks, ras, dan khususnya, kualifikasi pendidikan. Apakah ini digunakan sebagai proxy untuk kognitif atau noncognitive produktivitas-en hancing karakteristik, untuk ukuran trainability individu, atau hanya sebagai pengukuran untuk membagi tenaga kerja adalah masih perdebatan.