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Developing relationships with and retaining customers are central to the concept of memberships, which constitute non-contractual approaches to precommitment. Service busi¬nesses have successfully employed various methods to "lock in" customers. Non-contractual switching costs cre¬ated by airlines through their frequent flyer programs and hotel chains through their honored frequent guest programs are cases in point. The more formalized such relationships are, the greater are the benefits that accrue to the service pro¬vider. In return for exclusive privileges for members, valua¬ble information collected about customers can be used to gain scope advantages (by cross-selling other services to cus¬tomers), as well as to build non-contractual switching costs. For example, American Express reportedly has over 450 items of information on each customer that are used by its direct marketing division to sell consumer products to them (Newport 1989). Studies focusing on service industries have found that developing relationships with customers (through implicit contracts) has a positive impact on firm performance (Nayyar 1992; Crosby, Evans, and Cowles 1990; Crosby and Stephens 1987). Trust provides an alter¬native means to developing non-contractual precommit-ments with customers. Trust (i.e., a willingness to rely on an exchange partner in whom one has confidence) has also been shown to be positively associated with commitment to a relationship (Moorman, Zaltman, and Deshpande 1992).Precommitment contracts can not only deter entry but also prevent customers from exiting existing contracts. For example, in hospital management contracts, incumbent firms have a significant edge in contract renewals because of the substantial costs to hospitals of changing firms (Por¬ter 1985). The switching costs become higher as (1) the cus¬tomer gets accustomed to the procedures provided by the system, resulting in a procedural specificity (Malone, Yates, and Benjamin 1987); (2) the extent to which this pro¬cedural specificity is increased by an electronic integration effect (dependency of the customer on a vendor, created by the use of interorganizational or transaction-based systems [Malone, Yates, and Benjamin 1987; Glazer 1991]); and (3) the customers modify their own internal procedures as a re¬sult of using the system (Barrett and Konsynski 1982; Runge 1988). Studies in the insurance industry have found that agents who were electronically linked with a particular insurance carrier showed a significant increase in the num¬ber of policies written with that carrier compared to agents who were not electronically linked to the carrier (Venka-traman and Zaheer 1990; O'Callaghan, Kaufmann, and Konsynski 1992). As noted previously, buying services with greater experience and credence qualities involves greater consumer risk taking. Relationships, by nurturing strong social and personal ties with consumers (Czepiel 1990), allow a firm to offer a greater assurance to custom¬ers and lower the perceived risk (see Crosby and Stephens 1987; Crosby, Evans and Cowles 1990).P : The greater the experience and credence attributes of a ser-vice, the greater the importance of relationships as a source of competitive differentiation advantage.Spatial PreemptionBecause demand for many customer services is based on convenience, preemptive identification of ideal service loca- tions is critical to achieving better facility utilization (Allen 1988). However, though the delivery of certain services could require a firm to invest in multiple service deliver)' fa¬cilities at locations that are convenient to the served market (e.g., facilities for cash withdrawal and deposit), certain other services can be offered from a single centralized loca¬tion (e.g., credit cards). Clearly, preemption of strategic lo¬cations is an important source of competitive cost and differ¬entiation advantage only in the context of the former, as highlighted in reference to the banking industry.The simultaneity/inseparability characteristic of services implies that unlike goods, services are typically produced and consumed at the same time. Therefore, a consumer en¬gaging in a financial transaction such as cash withdrawal must interface with a service deliverer, namely the bank teller. An alternative technological solution to serving this customer need is to install automated teller machines (ATMs). With ATMs in place, serving a customer need such as financial transactions processing does not have to be limited to the regular banking hours of 9:00 A.M. to 3:00 P.M. In effect, the simultaneity characteristic of ser¬vices is no longer a constraint on the service provider. The service can be made available for 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Also, to use the service, the consumer does not have to be physically present on the bank premises. The transactions can be processed through ATMs placed at strategic locations off the bank premises. The first firm that recognized the potential of this alter¬native technological solution had an array of opportunities to achieve a SCA. First, it had the opportunity to acquire or lease prime real estate at strategic locations (off-bank premises) for placing its ATMs at prices below those that would prevail later in the evolution of the market. (As the market for a resource such as strategic locations for plac¬ing ATMs became competitive, the price of this resource would have been bid up until it was equal to the net pre¬sent value of future above-normal benefits that can be de¬rived from this resource [see Barney 1986b]). This would have lead to a cost asymmetry between the first firm to make a significant investment in spatial preemption of lo¬cations for placement of ATMs and later entrants. Sec¬ond, under conditions of manufacturing capacity con¬straints in the supplier industry, by contracting with sup¬plier firms for their entire output of ATMs, the firm could have delayed the availability of ATMs to other competing firms. Because of the response time lag inherent in the sup¬plier industry (i.e., the amount of time that would have elapsed before ATM manufacturers would have been in a position to deliver ATMs to the competitors of the pioneer¬ing bank), this source of competitive advantage would have endured for some period of time, though not indefi-nitely. In other words, even the firm's competitors who also recognized the potential of A|Ms as an effective so¬lution to die simultaneity characteristic of services would not have been in a position to immediately neutralize the differentiation advantage enjoyed by die pioneering firm at¬tributable to a unique firm resource (ATMs). In summary, by making preemptive investments in key resources, a per¬ceptive firm could have achieved an absolute cost advan¬tage (through preemptive contracts for acquiring or leas¬ing strategic locations for placing ATMs), as well as a differentiation advantage (through preemptive contracts to acquire the entire output of ATM manufacturers and spa¬tial preemption of strategic locations). Understandably, the value of supplier industry response lag time as a source of competitive advantage would have diminished over time as manufacturers of ATMs stepped up their out- Sustainable Competitive Advantage / 91Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
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