Normative Accounting TheoriesMd. Humayun Kabir*Abstract This paper rev terjemahan - Normative Accounting TheoriesMd. Humayun Kabir*Abstract This paper rev Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

Normative Accounting TheoriesMd. Hu

Normative Accounting Theories

Md. Humayun Kabir*


Abstract This paper reviews five important works on normative accounting theory – MacNeal (1939), Paton and Littleton (1940), Littleton (1953), Chambers (1966), and Ijiri (1975) – with emphasis on recognition and measurement issues in accounting. It shows that there is a lack of agreement among these theorists on basic assumptions and hypothesized information needs of the users. Even where there is agreement on an assumption, different implications have been drawn therefrom by the concerned theorists. These differences lead to different recognition and measurement proposals. This paper also shows that many of the ideas in accounting that seemed to be novel were anticipated by these early theorists. Finally, it assesses the present accounting practice in the light of these theories.

Keywords: Normative accounting theory, accounting recognition and measurement.


Introduction

This paper examines select normative accounting theories. Starting with the twentieth century,1 normative accounting theorists had been preoccupied with developing/constructing accounting principles. The primary concern had been recognition and measurement issues. Hence the focus of this paper shall be on these theorists’ proposals on accounting recognition and measurement and the arguments/theoretical structures behind these proposals. It also compares the works reviewed.

There are controversies among accounting academics regarding what an accounting theory is. Watts and Zimmerman (1986: 2) posit that accounting theory seeks to explain and predict accounting practice.2 Positivists like Watts and Zimmerman (hereinafter W & Z only) cite



* Md. Humayun Kabir, D.B.A., is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Accounting & Information Systems, University of Dhaka. The author is grateful to Professor Santi Narayan Ghosh and Professor Saroj Kumar Saha of the University of Dhaka and Professor Hidetoshi Yamaji of Kobe University of Japan for their helpful suggestions on an earlier draft of this paper. Comments of an anonymous reviewer are appreciated.

1 The debate about accounting principles did not start seriously before the twentieth century (MacNeal 1939: 69). Accounting practice was primarily concerned with the development of bookkeeping techniques up to the beginning of the twentieth century. Early bookkeeping books seem to have been concerned with the methods of making bookkeeping entries. In fact, the early books did not mention even such basic issues as the use and calculation of depreciation.

2 They label their theory as ‘Positive Accounting Theory.’ They borrow the phrase ‘positive theory’ from economics. Friedman (1953) popularized this phrase. What Watts and Zimmerman do actually is propagate a specific version of accounting theory. Methodologically they subscribe to the Kuhnian (1970) view of science. It is, however, to be noted that most of the research in economics, from which Watts and Zimmerman (1986) borrow their term positive, has normative consequences. When economists analyze a social phenomenon, their analysis contain in it normative implications. For example, information economics deals with the implications of information asymmetry and contains the suggestion that mechanisms should be devised so that the problem of information asymmetry can be mitigated. Agency theory highlights the agency problem arising from the separation of ownership from control in large corporations and suggests that corporate governance mechanisms should be designed and implemented to mitigate the agency problem. The same can be said of Adam Smith’s the Wealth of Nations. The Wealth of Nations did not merely explain a capitalistic economy. In fact the English economy was hardly capitalistic in today’s terms when Smith wrote the book. The Nation propagated the notion and benefits of a capitalistic economy. The book was written and used as an intellectual weapon by the bourgeois against the monarchy (Ashton 1968). Positive accounting theorists have studied the incentives of earnings management and have identified situations when earnings management may be present. But they hardly suggest a remedy to this problem. Sterling (1990) has rightly attacked this position of the positivists. This note, however, should not be taken as an attempt to belittle the achievements of positive accounting research. It has yielded many interesting and useful insights into financial


economics and natural science disciplines such as physics, chemistry, etc. in the defense of their method and call their method ‘the scientific method’ (W & Z 1986: 2), thus probably implying that there is only one method in science. This is highly disputed by accounting academics pursuing other strands of research (Christensen 1983; Chua 1986). Science is not a unified structure. There is no a unique scientific method. Science knows many methods (Feyerabend 1993). Hence, even if one wishes to study accounting as a scientific discipline, there is more than the method advocated by W & Z (1986).3 One major criticism of W & Z’s view of accounting theory is that it unnecessarily narrows the area of accounting research (Chua 1986; Whittington 1987). For our purpose, we adopt the following definition of accounting theory: “--- the business of accounting theory is to examine beliefs and customs critically, to clarify and extend the best from experience, and to direct attention to the genesis and outcome of accounting work” (Littleton 1953: 132). This definition accommodates different strands of accounting research such as research in normative accounting and empirical accounting as well as research in interpretative accounting.

A normative accounting theory seeks to prescribe some basis of accounting measurement, particular accounting procedures, and the contents of financial reports (Ijiri 1975; W & Z 1986).4 Ijiri views normative theories as a special case of deductive theories. Deductive theories that start with some goal assumptions and deduce accounting procedures therefrom are labeled normative theories.5 Thus, there are two important elements of a normative theory: (a) goal assumption, and (b) deduction. A theorist may set his own goals that are not inherent to current accounting practice. Chambers (1966) falls in this group. Again, a theorist may inductively derive goals from accounting practice and use those goals to suggest improvements in current practice. Ijiri falls into this group. Such theories are also categorized as normative in this paper. It is to be noted that not every theorist is explicit on goal statement. Some state the basic assumptions and deduce accounting measurement from these. Paton and Littleton (1940) fall in this group.

So far three approaches have been employed in normative accounting research. These are (a) inductive model, (b) deductive model, and (c) the decision usefulness approach. In induction, a general statement (X) is induced from some empirical observations, hypothetical phenomena, or non-empirical concepts (O). The implications of X include and go beyond O. It may be noted that many Xs may be induced from O. The contribution of an inductive model is in coming up with an X as an explanation of O. On the other hand, the opposite process is followed in deductive models. Here O is deduced from X. X is a set of theories, or assumptions that have already been accepted. In a deductive model, O is a special case of X. In the decision-usefulness, decision model approach, ‘information relevant to a decision model or criterion is




accounting and reporting issues. The point this note intends to make is that normative accounting research has, and should have, a rightful place in accounting theory and research.

3 Accounting also knows many methods. Positive accounting theory uses one of these methods. See Hopwood and Miller (1994) for a sample of studies using methodological assumptions/world views different from those used in positive accounting research. See Sawabe and Yamaji (1999) for a useful discussion of various approaches employed in the research of accounting. Specifically, they discuss various research approaches falling under the broader umbrella of institutional accounting research.

4 Watts and Zimmerman do not use the phrase ‘normative accounting theory’. Rather they (p.7) use the phrase ‘normative propositions.’

5 Ijiri differentiates between normative theories and policies. In normative theory, the researcher does not commit himself/herself to the goal assumed. In accounting policy, however, the researcher is committed to the goal. Normative theories can thus be scientifically verified, while policies are based on value judgement of the researcher. As Ijiri recognizes, this distinction is blurred in accounting. Accounting theories and policies are often intermingled.





2


isolated and various accounting alternatives are compared to the data presumably necessary for implementing these decision models’ (AAA 1977: 10).

Inductivists such as Hatfield (1927), Littleton (1953), Ijiri (1975), etc. examine extant accounting practice and have tried to rationalize and, sometimes, justify major elements of extant accounting practice. Among the inductivists, Ijiri (1975) is very explicit in his adoption of the inductive approach to accounting theory. He expresses his preference for inductive models over deductive models in the following words:

This type of inductive reasoning to derive goals implicit in the behavior of an existing system is not intended to be pro-establishment or to promote the maintenance of the status quo. The purpose of such an exercise is to highlight where changes are most needed and where they are feasible. Changes suggested as a result of such as a study have a much better chance of being actually implemented. Goal assumptions in normative models or goals advocated in policy discussions are often stated purely on the basis of one’s conviction
0/5000
Dari: -
Ke: -
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1: [Salinan]
Disalin!
Normative Accounting TheoriesMd. Humayun Kabir*Abstract This paper reviews five important works on normative accounting theory – MacNeal (1939), Paton and Littleton (1940), Littleton (1953), Chambers (1966), and Ijiri (1975) – with emphasis on recognition and measurement issues in accounting. It shows that there is a lack of agreement among these theorists on basic assumptions and hypothesized information needs of the users. Even where there is agreement on an assumption, different implications have been drawn therefrom by the concerned theorists. These differences lead to different recognition and measurement proposals. This paper also shows that many of the ideas in accounting that seemed to be novel were anticipated by these early theorists. Finally, it assesses the present accounting practice in the light of these theories.Keywords: Normative accounting theory, accounting recognition and measurement.IntroductionThis paper examines select normative accounting theories. Starting with the twentieth century,1 normative accounting theorists had been preoccupied with developing/constructing accounting principles. The primary concern had been recognition and measurement issues. Hence the focus of this paper shall be on these theorists’ proposals on accounting recognition and measurement and the arguments/theoretical structures behind these proposals. It also compares the works reviewed.There are controversies among accounting academics regarding what an accounting theory is. Watts and Zimmerman (1986: 2) posit that accounting theory seeks to explain and predict accounting practice.2 Positivists like Watts and Zimmerman (hereinafter W & Z only) cite* Md. Humayun Kabir, D.B.A., is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Accounting & Information Systems, University of Dhaka. The author is grateful to Professor Santi Narayan Ghosh and Professor Saroj Kumar Saha of the University of Dhaka and Professor Hidetoshi Yamaji of Kobe University of Japan for their helpful suggestions on an earlier draft of this paper. Comments of an anonymous reviewer are appreciated.1 The debate about accounting principles did not start seriously before the twentieth century (MacNeal 1939: 69). Accounting practice was primarily concerned with the development of bookkeeping techniques up to the beginning of the twentieth century. Early bookkeeping books seem to have been concerned with the methods of making bookkeeping entries. In fact, the early books did not mention even such basic issues as the use and calculation of depreciation.2 They label their theory as ‘Positive Accounting Theory.’ They borrow the phrase ‘positive theory’ from economics. Friedman (1953) popularized this phrase. What Watts and Zimmerman do actually is propagate a specific version of accounting theory. Methodologically they subscribe to the Kuhnian (1970) view of science. It is, however, to be noted that most of the research in economics, from which Watts and Zimmerman (1986) borrow their term positive, has normative consequences. When economists analyze a social phenomenon, their analysis contain in it normative implications. For example, information economics deals with the implications of information asymmetry and contains the suggestion that mechanisms should be devised so that the problem of information asymmetry can be mitigated. Agency theory highlights the agency problem arising from the separation of ownership from control in large corporations and suggests that corporate governance mechanisms should be designed and implemented to mitigate the agency problem. The same can be said of Adam Smith’s the Wealth of Nations. The Wealth of Nations did not merely explain a capitalistic economy. In fact the English economy was hardly capitalistic in today’s terms when Smith wrote the book. The Nation propagated the notion and benefits of a capitalistic economy. The book was written and used as an intellectual weapon by the bourgeois against the monarchy (Ashton 1968). Positive accounting theorists have studied the incentives of earnings management and have identified situations when earnings management may be present. But they hardly suggest a remedy to this problem. Sterling (1990) has rightly attacked this position of the positivists. This note, however, should not be taken as an attempt to belittle the achievements of positive accounting research. It has yielded many interesting and useful insights into financial economics and natural science disciplines such as physics, chemistry, etc. in the defense of their method and call their method ‘the scientific method’ (W & Z 1986: 2), thus probably implying that there is only one method in science. This is highly disputed by accounting academics pursuing other strands of research (Christensen 1983; Chua 1986). Science is not a unified structure. There is no a unique scientific method. Science knows many methods (Feyerabend 1993). Hence, even if one wishes to study accounting as a scientific discipline, there is more than the method advocated by W & Z (1986).3 One major criticism of W & Z’s view of accounting theory is that it unnecessarily narrows the area of accounting research (Chua 1986; Whittington 1987). For our purpose, we adopt the following definition of accounting theory: “--- the business of accounting theory is to examine beliefs and customs critically, to clarify and extend the best from experience, and to direct attention to the genesis and outcome of accounting work” (Littleton 1953: 132). This definition accommodates different strands of accounting research such as research in normative accounting and empirical accounting as well as research in interpretative accounting.A normative accounting theory seeks to prescribe some basis of accounting measurement, particular accounting procedures, and the contents of financial reports (Ijiri 1975; W & Z 1986).4 Ijiri views normative theories as a special case of deductive theories. Deductive theories that start with some goal assumptions and deduce accounting procedures therefrom are labeled normative theories.5 Thus, there are two important elements of a normative theory: (a) goal assumption, and (b) deduction. A theorist may set his own goals that are not inherent to current accounting practice. Chambers (1966) falls in this group. Again, a theorist may inductively derive goals from accounting practice and use those goals to suggest improvements in current practice. Ijiri falls into this group. Such theories are also categorized as normative in this paper. It is to be noted that not every theorist is explicit on goal statement. Some state the basic assumptions and deduce accounting measurement from these. Paton and Littleton (1940) fall in this group.
So far three approaches have been employed in normative accounting research. These are (a) inductive model, (b) deductive model, and (c) the decision usefulness approach. In induction, a general statement (X) is induced from some empirical observations, hypothetical phenomena, or non-empirical concepts (O). The implications of X include and go beyond O. It may be noted that many Xs may be induced from O. The contribution of an inductive model is in coming up with an X as an explanation of O. On the other hand, the opposite process is followed in deductive models. Here O is deduced from X. X is a set of theories, or assumptions that have already been accepted. In a deductive model, O is a special case of X. In the decision-usefulness, decision model approach, ‘information relevant to a decision model or criterion is




accounting and reporting issues. The point this note intends to make is that normative accounting research has, and should have, a rightful place in accounting theory and research.

3 Accounting also knows many methods. Positive accounting theory uses one of these methods. See Hopwood and Miller (1994) for a sample of studies using methodological assumptions/world views different from those used in positive accounting research. See Sawabe and Yamaji (1999) for a useful discussion of various approaches employed in the research of accounting. Specifically, they discuss various research approaches falling under the broader umbrella of institutional accounting research.

4 Watts and Zimmerman do not use the phrase ‘normative accounting theory’. Rather they (p.7) use the phrase ‘normative propositions.’

5 Ijiri differentiates between normative theories and policies. In normative theory, the researcher does not commit himself/herself to the goal assumed. In accounting policy, however, the researcher is committed to the goal. Normative theories can thus be scientifically verified, while policies are based on value judgement of the researcher. As Ijiri recognizes, this distinction is blurred in accounting. Accounting theories and policies are often intermingled.





2


isolated and various accounting alternatives are compared to the data presumably necessary for implementing these decision models’ (AAA 1977: 10).

Inductivists such as Hatfield (1927), Littleton (1953), Ijiri (1975), etc. examine extant accounting practice and have tried to rationalize and, sometimes, justify major elements of extant accounting practice. Among the inductivists, Ijiri (1975) is very explicit in his adoption of the inductive approach to accounting theory. He expresses his preference for inductive models over deductive models in the following words:

This type of inductive reasoning to derive goals implicit in the behavior of an existing system is not intended to be pro-establishment or to promote the maintenance of the status quo. The purpose of such an exercise is to highlight where changes are most needed and where they are feasible. Changes suggested as a result of such as a study have a much better chance of being actually implemented. Goal assumptions in normative models or goals advocated in policy discussions are often stated purely on the basis of one’s conviction
Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:[Salinan]
Disalin!
Teori Akuntansi normatif Md. Humayun Kabir * Abstrak Tulisan ini lima karya penting pada teori akuntansi normatif - MacNeal (1939), Paton dan Littleton (1940), Littleton (1953), Chambers (1966), dan Ijiri (1975) - dengan penekanan pada isu-isu pengakuan dan pengukuran dalam akuntansi. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa ada kurangnya kesepakatan antara teori ini pada asumsi dasar dan hipotesis kebutuhan informasi dari pengguna. Bahkan di mana ada kesepakatan tentang asumsi, implikasi yang berbeda telah ditarik darinya oleh ahli teori yang bersangkutan. Perbedaan ini menyebabkan pengakuan dan pengukuran proposal yang berbeda. Makalah ini juga menunjukkan bahwa banyak dari ide-ide dalam akuntansi yang tampaknya menjadi novel yang diantisipasi oleh teori ini awal. Akhirnya, menilai praktik akuntansi hadir dalam terang teori ini. Kata kunci:. Teori akuntansi normatif, akuntansi pengakuan dan pengukuran Pendahuluan Makalah ini membahas teori akuntansi normatif pilih. Dimulai dengan abad kedua puluh, 1 teori akuntansi normatif telah sibuk dengan mengembangkan / membangun prinsip akuntansi. Perhatian utama memiliki masalah pengakuan dan pengukuran telah. Oleh karena itu fokus dari makalah ini akan proposal teori ini 'pengakuan akuntansi dan pengukuran dan argumen / struktur teoritis belakang proposal ini. Hal ini juga membandingkan karya Ulasan. Ada kontroversi di kalangan akademisi akuntansi tentang apa teori akuntansi adalah. Watts dan Zimmerman (1986: 2) mengandaikan bahwa teori akuntansi berusaha untuk menjelaskan dan memprediksi akuntansi Positivis practice.2 seperti Watts dan Zimmerman (selanjutnya W & hanya Z) cite * Md Humayun Kabir, DBA, adalah Asisten Profesor di Departemen. Akuntansi & Sistem Informasi, Universitas Dhaka. Penulis berterima kasih kepada Profesor Santi Narayan Ghosh dan Profesor Saroj Kumar Saha dari Universitas Dhaka dan Profesor Hidetoshi Yamaji dari Universitas Kobe Jepang untuk membantu saran mereka pada draf awal tulisan ini. Komentar dari resensi anonim dihargai. 1 Perdebatan tentang prinsip akuntansi tidak mulai serius sebelum abad kedua puluh (MacNeal 1939: 69). Praktik akuntansi adalah terutama berkaitan dengan pengembangan teknik pembukuan sampai dengan awal abad kedua puluh. Buku pembukuan awal tampaknya telah peduli dengan metode pembuatan entri pembukuan. Bahkan, buku-buku awal tidak menyebutkan masalah dasar bahkan seperti penggunaan dan perhitungan penyusutan. 2 Mereka label teori mereka sebagai 'Positif Teori Akuntansi.' Mereka meminjam 'teori positif' frase dari ekonomi. Friedman (1953) mempopulerkan kalimat ini. Apa Watts dan Zimmerman lakukan sebenarnya adalah menyebarkan versi tertentu dari teori akuntansi. Metodologis mereka berlangganan Kuhnian (1970) pandangan ilmu. Hal ini, bagaimanapun, perlu dicatat bahwa sebagian besar penelitian di bidang ekonomi, dari mana Watts dan Zimmerman (1986) meminjam istilah mereka positif, memiliki konsekuensi normatif. Ketika ekonom menganalisis fenomena sosial, analisis mereka mengandung di dalamnya normatif implikasi. Misalnya, ekonomi informasi berkaitan dengan implikasi dari asimetri informasi dan berisi saran bahwa mekanisme harus dirancang sehingga masalah asimetri informasi dapat dikurangi. Badan teori menyoroti masalah keagenan yang timbul dari pemisahan kepemilikan dari kontrol di perusahaan besar dan menunjukkan bahwa mekanisme corporate governance harus dirancang dan dilaksanakan untuk mengurangi masalah keagenan. Hal yang sama dapat dikatakan Adam Smith Wealth of Nations. The Wealth of Nations tidak hanya menjelaskan ekonomi kapitalistik. Bahkan ekonomi Inggris hampir tidak kapitalistik dalam hal sekarang ini ketika Smith menulis buku. Bangsa disebarkan gagasan dan manfaat ekonomi kapitalistik. Buku ini ditulis dan digunakan sebagai senjata intelektual oleh borjuis melawan monarki (Ashton 1968). Teori akuntansi positif telah mempelajari insentif manajemen laba dan telah mengidentifikasi situasi ketika manajemen laba dapat hadir. Tapi mereka tidak menyarankan obat untuk masalah ini. Sterling (1990) telah benar menyerang posisi ini dari positivis. Catatan ini, bagaimanapun, tidak harus diambil sebagai upaya untuk meremehkan prestasi penelitian akuntansi positif. Ini telah menghasilkan banyak wawasan menarik dan berguna dalam keuangan ekonomi dan disiplin ilmu alam seperti fisika, kimia, dll dalam membela metode mereka dan memanggil metode mereka metode ilmiah '(W & Z 1986: 2), sehingga mungkin menyiratkan bahwa hanya ada satu metode dalam ilmu pengetahuan. Hal ini sangat diperdebatkan oleh akademisi akuntansi mengejar helai lain dari penelitian (Christensen 1983; Chua 1986). Ilmu tidak struktur terpadu. Tidak ada metode ilmiah yang unik. Ilmu tahu banyak metode (Feyerabend 1993). Oleh karena itu, bahkan jika seseorang ingin belajar akuntansi sebagai suatu disiplin ilmu, ada lebih dari metode yang dianjurkan oleh W & Z (1986) 0,3 Salah satu kritik utama dari W & Z pandang teori akuntansi adalah bahwa hal itu tidak perlu mempersempit area akuntansi Penelitian (Chua 1986; Whittington 1987). Untuk tujuan kita, kita mengadopsi definisi berikut dari teori akuntansi: "--- bisnis teori akuntansi adalah untuk menguji kepercayaan dan adat istiadat kritis, untuk memperjelas dan memperluas yang terbaik dari pengalaman, dan untuk mengarahkan perhatian pada asal-usul dan hasil dari akuntansi bekerja "(Littleton, 1953: 132). Definisi ini mengakomodasi helai yang berbeda dari penelitian akuntansi seperti penelitian di bidang akuntansi normatif dan akuntansi empiris serta penelitian di bidang akuntansi interpretatif. Sebuah teori akuntansi normatif berusaha untuk meresepkan beberapa dasar pengukuran akuntansi, prosedur akuntansi tertentu, dan isi laporan keuangan (Ijiri 1975; W & Z 1986) 0,4 Ijiri memandang teori normatif sebagai kasus khusus dari teori deduktif. Teori deduktif yang dimulai dengan beberapa asumsi tujuan dan menyimpulkan prosedur akuntansi darinya diberi label theories.5 normatif demikian, ada dua elemen penting dari teori normatif: (a) asumsi tujuan, dan (b) pengurangan. Sebuah teori dapat menetapkan tujuan sendiri yang tidak melekat pada praktik akuntansi saat ini. Chambers (1966) jatuh dalam kelompok ini. Sekali lagi, teori mungkin induktif berasal gol dari praktik akuntansi dan menggunakan tujuan tersebut untuk menyarankan perbaikan dalam praktek saat ini. Ijiri jatuh ke dalam kelompok ini. Teori tersebut juga dikategorikan sebagai normatif dalam makalah ini. Perlu dicatat bahwa tidak setiap teori adalah eksplisit pada pernyataan tujuan. Beberapa negara asumsi dasar dan menyimpulkan akuntansi pengukuran dari ini. Paton dan Littleton (1940) jatuh dalam kelompok ini. Sejauh ini tiga pendekatan telah digunakan dalam penelitian akuntansi normatif. Ini adalah (a) Model induktif, (b) Model deduktif, dan (c) pendekatan kegunaan keputusan. Dalam induksi, pernyataan umum (X) diinduksi dari beberapa pengamatan empiris, fenomena hipotetis, atau konsep non-empiris (O). Implikasi dari X meliputi dan melampaui O. Dapat dicatat bahwa banyak Xs dapat diinduksi dari O. Kontribusi model induktif dalam datang dengan X sebagai penjelasan dari O. Di sisi lain, proses yang berlawanan diikuti dalam model deduktif. Berikut O disimpulkan dari X. X adalah seperangkat teori, atau asumsi-asumsi yang telah diterima. Dalam model deduktif, O adalah kasus khusus dari X. Dalam pengambilan manfaat, pendekatan model keputusan, 'informasi yang relevan untuk model keputusan atau kriteria yang akuntansi dan pelaporan masalah. Titik catatan ini bermaksud untuk membuat adalah bahwa penelitian akuntansi normatif memiliki, dan harus memiliki, tempat yang sah dalam teori dan penelitian akuntansi. 3 Akuntansi juga tahu banyak metode. Teori akuntansi positif menggunakan salah satu metode ini. Lihat Hopwood dan Miller (1994) untuk sampel penelitian menggunakan asumsi metodologis / memandang dunia berbeda dari yang digunakan dalam penelitian akuntansi positif. Lihat Sawabe dan Yamaji (1999) untuk diskusi yang berguna dari berbagai pendekatan yang digunakan dalam penelitian akuntansi. Secara khusus, mereka membahas berbagai penelitian pendekatan jatuh di bawah payung yang lebih luas dari penelitian akuntansi institusional. 4 Watts dan Zimmerman tidak menggunakan frase 'teori akuntansi normatif'. Sebaliknya mereka (hal.7) menggunakan 'proposisi normatif.' Frase 5 Ijiri membedakan antara teori dan kebijakan normatif. Dalam teori normatif, peneliti tidak melakukan dirinya / dirinya untuk tujuan diasumsikan. Kebijakan akuntansi, namun, peneliti berkomitmen untuk tujuan. Teori normatif sehingga dapat diverifikasi secara ilmiah, sementara kebijakan didasarkan pada pertimbangan nilai dari peneliti. Sebagai Ijiri mengakui, perbedaan ini menjadi kabur dalam akuntansi. Teori akuntansi dan kebijakan sering bercampur. 2 alternatif akuntansi terisolasi dan berbagai dibandingkan dengan data mungkin diperlukan untuk melaksanakan model keputusan ini '(AAA 1977: 10). Inductivists seperti Hatfield (1927), Littleton (1953), Ijiri (1975 ), dll memeriksa praktik akuntansi yang masih ada dan telah mencoba untuk merasionalisasi dan, kadang-kadang, membenarkan elemen utama dari praktik akuntansi yang masih ada. Di antara inductivists, Ijiri (1975) sangat eksplisit dalam adopsi nya pendekatan induktif teori akuntansi. Dia mengungkapkan preferensinya untuk model induktif lebih model deduktif dalam kata-kata berikut: Jenis penalaran induktif untuk memperoleh tujuan yang tersirat dalam perilaku sistem yang ada tidak dimaksudkan untuk menjadi pro-pembentukan atau untuk mempromosikan pemeliharaan status quo. Tujuan dari latihan tersebut adalah untuk menyoroti di mana perubahan yang paling dibutuhkan dan di mana mereka yang layak. Perubahan yang disarankan sebagai akibat dari seperti studi memiliki kesempatan yang jauh lebih baik dari yang benar-benar dilaksanakan. Asumsi gol dalam model normatif atau tujuan menganjurkan dalam diskusi kebijakan sering dinyatakan murni atas dasar keyakinan seseorang




















































Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
 
Bahasa lainnya
Dukungan alat penerjemahan: Afrikans, Albania, Amhara, Arab, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahasa Indonesia, Basque, Belanda, Belarussia, Bengali, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Burma, Cebuano, Ceko, Chichewa, China, Cina Tradisional, Denmark, Deteksi bahasa, Esperanto, Estonia, Farsi, Finlandia, Frisia, Gaelig, Gaelik Skotlandia, Galisia, Georgia, Gujarati, Hausa, Hawaii, Hindi, Hmong, Ibrani, Igbo, Inggris, Islan, Italia, Jawa, Jepang, Jerman, Kannada, Katala, Kazak, Khmer, Kinyarwanda, Kirghiz, Klingon, Korea, Korsika, Kreol Haiti, Kroat, Kurdi, Laos, Latin, Latvia, Lituania, Luksemburg, Magyar, Makedonia, Malagasi, Malayalam, Malta, Maori, Marathi, Melayu, Mongol, Nepal, Norsk, Odia (Oriya), Pashto, Polandia, Portugis, Prancis, Punjabi, Rumania, Rusia, Samoa, Serb, Sesotho, Shona, Sindhi, Sinhala, Slovakia, Slovenia, Somali, Spanyol, Sunda, Swahili, Swensk, Tagalog, Tajik, Tamil, Tatar, Telugu, Thai, Turki, Turkmen, Ukraina, Urdu, Uyghur, Uzbek, Vietnam, Wales, Xhosa, Yiddi, Yoruba, Yunani, Zulu, Bahasa terjemahan.

Copyright ©2025 I Love Translation. All reserved.

E-mail: