The Issue of Equality in Development ProgramsThe importance of the iss terjemahan - The Issue of Equality in Development ProgramsThe importance of the iss Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

The Issue of Equality in Developmen

The Issue of Equality in Development Programs
The importance of the issue of equality in the distribution of an innovation's
consequences began to be realized in the 1970s. Until that
time, most diffusion programs simply ignored the equality issue,
generally trusting in the "trickle-down theory" to cancel out the gapwidening
tendencies of innovation diffusion in the long run. In fact,most diffusion agencies, and the majority of diffusion investigations,
paid little attention to the equality issue in the past. For instance, my
1971 book on diffusion (Rogers with Shoemaker, 1971) scarcely mentions
the problem of unequal consequences of innovations. Most diffusion
researchers were aware of this problem in the 1950s and 1960s,
but we did not know what to do about it. We did not have a research
approach that enabled us to analyze the equality/inequality consequences
of diffusion, nor were funding sources encouraging research
on this issue. Perhaps one reason explaining the long neglect of equality
was the pro-innovation bias of diffusion researchers and of change
agencies.
But beginning in the early 1970s, development programs in
developing nations began to become much more conscious of the
equality issue. This change in thinking happened as one part of the
passing of the dominant paradigm of development (Rogers, 1976); until
about 1970, the main index of development progress was the rate of
annual increase in gross national product (GNP, the total annual income
of a country). A yearly increase of 5 or 10 percent in GNP, as occurred
in some countries such as Mexico, South Korea, and Taiwan,
was defined as very successful development; most nations achieved a
much lower rate of GNP increase.
But questions began to be asked in the early 1970s as to whether
development really consisted entirely, or even mainly, of the rate of
economic growth. For example, if the higher average income in a nation
was spent mainly in consuming more alcohol, was that really
development? And what if a nation increased its GNP by 8 percent per
year, but almost all of this increase went into the hands of the already
wealthy, leaving the majority of a nation's population as poor as
before?
Such troublesome questions led to an emphasis upon equality in
the emerging alternatives to the dominant paradigm of development
after 1970. Instead of following a path toward industrialization and
urbanization, involving the importation of capital-intensive technology
such as steel plants and hydroelectric plants, nations began to
make their villagers and urban poor the priority audience for development
programs. Governments generally sought to close socioeconomic
gaps by bringing up the lagging sectors and helping the weaker
segments of their population. Instead of measuring development
achievements solely in terms of their GNP, national planners began to
think of greater socioeconomic equality as a goal for development,
and to try to measure such noneconomic indicators of development as improvement in the quality of life. In fact, development began to be
defined as a widely participatory process of social change in a society,
intended to bring about social and material advancement (including
greater equality, freedom, and other valued qualities) for the majority
of the people through their gaining greater control over their environment
(Rogers, 1976).
But certainly the major change in thinking about development,
beginning in the 1970s, was the new emphasis upon equality in the
distribution of consequences of innovations. The new attention to
equality was not confined to diffusion programs that were part of
development activities in developing nations; a similar realization that
equality was a crucial second dimension in the hoped-for effects of a
diffusion program also occurred in developed nations like the United
States during the 1970s. Equality, it seemed, was an issue whose time
had come.
In our previous example of the impact of the snowmobile among
the Skolt Lapps, we encountered an illustration of the two dimensions
of consequences: (1) the first dimension of helping everyone travel
more rapidly (this is achieving a higher average level of "Good," some
widely desired objective or desideratum), and (2) the second dimension
of the unequal distribution of a "Good" (the tendency for
reindeer ownership to become concentrated in the hands of just a few
Lapps). Figure 11-3 depicts these two dimensions of consequences; in
the first situation, the average level of Good in a system increases as a
result of the innovation, but the distribution remains equal. In the second
situation shown, however, the average level of Good again increases,
but the Good also becomes more concentrated in the hands of
the socioeconomic elite as a consequence of the innovation; so the
degree of equality in the system has decreased because of the innovation.
When diffusion scholars and change agents began to distinguish
between (1) the level of Good, and (2) the equality of distribution of
Good, as consequences of diffusion activities, the next logical step
was to begin investigating the gap-widening and gap-narrowing impacts
of diffusion.
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The Issue of Equality in Development ProgramsThe importance of the issue of equality in the distribution of an innovation'sconsequences began to be realized in the 1970s. Until thattime, most diffusion programs simply ignored the equality issue,generally trusting in the "trickle-down theory" to cancel out the gapwideningtendencies of innovation diffusion in the long run. In fact,most diffusion agencies, and the majority of diffusion investigations,paid little attention to the equality issue in the past. For instance, my1971 book on diffusion (Rogers with Shoemaker, 1971) scarcely mentionsthe problem of unequal consequences of innovations. Most diffusionresearchers were aware of this problem in the 1950s and 1960s,but we did not know what to do about it. We did not have a researchapproach that enabled us to analyze the equality/inequality consequencesof diffusion, nor were funding sources encouraging researchon this issue. Perhaps one reason explaining the long neglect of equalitywas the pro-innovation bias of diffusion researchers and of changeagencies.But beginning in the early 1970s, development programs indeveloping nations began to become much more conscious of theequality issue. This change in thinking happened as one part of thepassing of the dominant paradigm of development (Rogers, 1976); untilabout 1970, the main index of development progress was the rate ofannual increase in gross national product (GNP, the total annual incomeof a country). A yearly increase of 5 or 10 percent in GNP, as occurredin some countries such as Mexico, South Korea, and Taiwan,was defined as very successful development; most nations achieved amuch lower rate of GNP increase.But questions began to be asked in the early 1970s as to whetherdevelopment really consisted entirely, or even mainly, of the rate ofeconomic growth. For example, if the higher average income in a nationwas spent mainly in consuming more alcohol, was that reallydevelopment? And what if a nation increased its GNP by 8 percent peryear, but almost all of this increase went into the hands of the alreadywealthy, leaving the majority of a nation's population as poor asbefore?Such troublesome questions led to an emphasis upon equality inthe emerging alternatives to the dominant paradigm of developmentafter 1970. Instead of following a path toward industrialization andurbanization, involving the importation of capital-intensive technologysuch as steel plants and hydroelectric plants, nations began tomake their villagers and urban poor the priority audience for developmentprograms. Governments generally sought to close socioeconomicgaps by bringing up the lagging sectors and helping the weakersegments of their population. Instead of measuring developmentachievements solely in terms of their GNP, national planners began tothink of greater socioeconomic equality as a goal for development,and to try to measure such noneconomic indicators of development as improvement in the quality of life. In fact, development began to bedefined as a widely participatory process of social change in a society,intended to bring about social and material advancement (includinggreater equality, freedom, and other valued qualities) for the majorityof the people through their gaining greater control over their environment(Rogers, 1976).But certainly the major change in thinking about development,beginning in the 1970s, was the new emphasis upon equality in thedistribution of consequences of innovations. The new attention toequality was not confined to diffusion programs that were part ofdevelopment activities in developing nations; a similar realization thatequality was a crucial second dimension in the hoped-for effects of adiffusion program also occurred in developed nations like the UnitedStates during the 1970s. Equality, it seemed, was an issue whose timehad come.In our previous example of the impact of the snowmobile amongthe Skolt Lapps, we encountered an illustration of the two dimensionsof consequences: (1) the first dimension of helping everyone travelmore rapidly (this is achieving a higher average level of "Good," somewidely desired objective or desideratum), and (2) the second dimensionof the unequal distribution of a "Good" (the tendency forreindeer ownership to become concentrated in the hands of just a fewLapps). Figure 11-3 depicts these two dimensions of consequences; inthe first situation, the average level of Good in a system increases as aresult of the innovation, but the distribution remains equal. In the secondsituation shown, however, the average level of Good again increases,but the Good also becomes more concentrated in the hands ofthe socioeconomic elite as a consequence of the innovation; so thedegree of equality in the system has decreased because of the innovation.When diffusion scholars and change agents began to distinguishbetween (1) the level of Good, and (2) the equality of distribution ofGood, as consequences of diffusion activities, the next logical stepwas to begin investigating the gap-widening and gap-narrowing impactsof diffusion.
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Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:[Salinan]
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Isu Kesetaraan dalam Program Pengembangan
Pentingnya isu kesetaraan dalam distribusi sebuah inovasi yang
konsekuensi mulai direalisasikan pada 1970-an. Sampai bahwa
waktu, kebanyakan program difusi mengabaikan isu kesetaraan,
umumnya percaya pada "teori trickle-down" untuk membatalkan keluar gapwidening
kecenderungan difusi inovasi dalam jangka panjang. Bahkan, sebagian besar lembaga difusi, dan mayoritas penyelidikan difusi,
sedikit perhatian terhadap isu kesetaraan di masa lalu. Misalnya, saya
buku 1971 pada difusi (Rogers dengan Shoemaker, 1971) hampir menyebutkan
masalah konsekuensi yang tidak sama dari inovasi. Kebanyakan difusi
peneliti menyadari masalah ini pada 1950-an dan 1960-an,
tapi kami tidak tahu apa yang harus dilakukan tentang hal itu. Kami tidak memiliki penelitian
pendekatan yang memungkinkan kita untuk menganalisis konsekuensi kesetaraan / ketimpangan
difusi, tidak juga sumber pendanaan mendorong penelitian
tentang masalah ini. Mungkin salah satu alasan yang menjelaskan mengabaikan panjang kesetaraan
adalah bias pro-inovasi peneliti difusi dan perubahan
badan.
Tapi dimulai pada awal 1970-an, program-program pembangunan di
negara-negara berkembang mulai menjadi jauh lebih sadar akan
isu kesetaraan. Perubahan pemikiran terjadi sebagai salah satu bagian dari
berlalunya paradigma dominan pembangunan (Rogers, 1976); sampai
sekitar tahun 1970, indeks utama kemajuan pembangunan adalah tingkat
peningkatan tahunan produk nasional bruto (GNP, total pendapatan tahunan
dari negara). Kenaikan tahunan dari 5 atau 10 persen GNP, seperti yang terjadi
di beberapa negara seperti Meksiko, Korea Selatan, dan Taiwan,
didefinisikan sebagai perkembangan yang sangat sukses; sebagian besar negara mencapai
tingkat yang lebih rendah dari GNP meningkat.
Tapi pertanyaan mulai diminta pada awal tahun 1970, apakah
pembangunan benar-benar seluruhnya terdiri, atau bahkan terutama, dari tingkat
pertumbuhan ekonomi. Sebagai contoh, jika pendapatan rata-rata yang lebih tinggi di negara
dihabiskan terutama dalam mengkonsumsi lebih banyak alkohol, itu yang benar-benar
pembangunan? Dan bagaimana jika suatu bangsa meningkat GNP sebesar 8 persen per
tahun, tetapi hampir semua kenaikan ini pergi ke tangan yang sudah
kaya, meninggalkan mayoritas penduduk suatu negara miskin seperti
sebelumnya?
Pertanyaan sulit tersebut menyebabkan penekanan pada kesetaraan di
alternatif muncul paradigma dominan pembangunan
setelah tahun 1970. Alih-alih mengikuti jalan menuju industrialisasi dan
urbanisasi, yang melibatkan impor teknologi padat modal
seperti pabrik baja dan pembangkit listrik tenaga air, bangsa mulai
membuat desa mereka dan kaum miskin kota prioritas penonton untuk pengembangan
program. Pemerintah umumnya berusaha untuk menutup sosial ekonomi
kesenjangan dengan mengusung sektor tertinggal dan membantu lemah
segmen populasi mereka. Alih-alih mengukur perkembangan
prestasi semata-mata dari segi GNP mereka, perencana nasional mulai
memikirkan kesetaraan sosial ekonomi yang lebih besar sebagai tujuan untuk pengembangan,
dan mencoba untuk mengukur indikator nonekonomi seperti pembangunan sebagai peningkatan kualitas hidup. Bahkan, pembangunan mulai
didefinisikan sebagai proses luas partisipatif perubahan sosial di masyarakat,
dimaksudkan untuk membawa kemajuan sosial dan material (termasuk
kesetaraan, kebebasan, dan kualitas dihargai lainnya) untuk sebagian
rakyat melalui mereka mendapatkan lebih besar kontrol atas lingkungan mereka
(Rogers, 1976).
Namun yang pasti perubahan besar dalam berpikir tentang pembangunan,
dimulai pada tahun 1970, adalah penekanan baru pada kesetaraan di
distribusi konsekuensi inovasi. Perhatian baru untuk
kesetaraan tidak terbatas pada program difusi yang merupakan bagian dari
kegiatan pembangunan di negara-negara berkembang; realisasi serupa yang
kesetaraan adalah dimensi kedua penting dalam berharap-untuk efek dari
Program difusi juga terjadi di negara-negara maju seperti Amerika
Serikat pada 1970-an. Kesetaraan, tampaknya, adalah masalah yang waktu
itu datang.
Dalam contoh kita sebelumnya dampak dari mobil salju antara
para Skolt Lapps, kami mengalami ilustrasi dari dua dimensi
konsekuensi: (1) dimensi pertama membantu orang melakukan perjalanan
lebih cepat (ini mencapai rata-rata tingkat yang lebih tinggi dari "Baik," beberapa
banyak diinginkan objektif atau sesuatu yg diinginkan), dan (2) dimensi kedua
dari distribusi yang tidak merata dari "Baik" (kecenderungan untuk
kepemilikan rusa untuk menjadi terkonsentrasi di tangan hanya beberapa
Lapps). Gambar 11-3 menggambarkan dua dimensi konsekuensi; di
situasi pertama, tingkat rata-rata baik dalam sistem meningkatkan sebagai
hasil dari inovasi, tapi distribusi tetap sama. Dalam kedua
situasi ditampilkan, bagaimanapun, tingkat rata-rata baik lagi meningkatkan,
tetapi baik juga menjadi lebih terkonsentrasi di tangan
elite sosial ekonomi sebagai konsekuensi dari inovasi; sehingga
tingkat kesetaraan dalam sistem telah menurun karena inovasi.
Ketika ulama difusi dan agen perubahan mulai membedakan
antara (1) tingkat yang baik, dan (2) kesetaraan distribusi
yang baik, sebagai konsekuensi dari kegiatan difusi, langkah logis selanjutnya
adalah untuk mulai menyelidiki kesenjangan-kesenjangan melebar dan penyempitan-dampak
difusi.
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