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A report by the National Sleep Foundation released in March2010 found that only 4 in 10 Americans say that they get enough sleep most nights (Marcus, 2010). This means that many Americans, and we suspect this is true to some degree around the world, are in some state of being sleep deprived on most days. Does this spell trouble for their ability to exert self-regulation and reach their goals? In other words, does fatigue, a state of being weary from effort or exhaustion (Merriam-Webster, 2010), portend self-regulation failure? The extant literature suggests so.Another perspective on how people reach their goals con- tends that people who engage in self-regulation are likely to show poor self-regulation subsequently. This pattern has been said to support a limited-resource model, which posits that self-regulation is governed by a global but depletable supply of energy that is taxed during the self-regulation process (Baumeister, Vohs, & Tice, 2007). Earlier engagements in self-regulation lead to later self-regulation failures, a hangover effect termed ego depletion or self-regulatory resource deple- tion. Although depletion effects occur reliably, there is little consensus as to what explains them.We asked whether being fatigued is tantamount to being depleted of self-regulatory resources using a controlled sleep design because sleep deprivation affects cognitive abil- ities much more so than physical abilities (Horne, 1985), mak- ing it an apt state to compare to the state of ego depletion. We tested fatigue (via sleep deprivation) and self-regulatory resource depletion as potential predictors of later self-regulation. Some of our participants were deprived of sleep for 24 hours, whereas others were not. In combination, some of our participants were instructed to use self-regulation to control their emotions whereas others were not. Then, all participants completed a game that offered opportunities to behave aggressively. Would sleep deprivation condition, self-regulation condition, or their mixture predict partici- pants’ aggressive responses?The Limited-Resource Model of Self-regulationIt is perhaps no surprise that self-regulation is so difficult, as there are myriad reasons why people fail at it. One model depicts self-regulation as governed by a limited stock of energy. This energy is said to be involved in every act of self-regulation, which suggests that it can be taxed easily. Numerous experiments have shown a pattern that supports a limited-resource model: After a person performs an act of1 University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA2 University of Texas, Austin, TX, USACorresponding Author:Kathleen D. Vohs, University of Minnesota, Carlson School of Management, Marketing Department, 3-150 321 19th Ave S., Minneapolis, MN 55455Email: kvohs@umn.edu self-regulation, it is more likely that later self-regulation attempts will be unsuccessful than if the person had not engaged in self-regulation earlier (Hagger, Wood, Stiff, & Chatzisarantis,2010). The self-regulation resource is renewable but does not appear to replenish itself as readily as it can be diminished.Initial research on the limited-resource model established that it could predict basic self-regulation findings, such as per- sistence and cognitive performance (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998; Muraven, Tice, & Baumeister,1998). In this work, participants engaged in one form of self- regulation (or not, for participants in comparison conditions), and then all participants’ self-regulation ability was tested.One thread running through this literature is that dormant urges become unleashed after people have earlier engaged in self-regulation. The limited-resource model has been invoked to explain why dieters (but not nondieters) eat more after hav- ing resisted the temptation of high-calorie foods or persisted at a challenging task (Vohs & Heatherton, 2000). People spend money impulsively after using their self-regulation resources to infuse emotion into reading an otherwise dry text, and this especially pronounced among those who have trouble restrain- ing their spending urges (Vohs & Faber, 2007). Cigarette smo- kers give in to their addiction more after having earlier resisted eating brownies, as compared to resisting broccoli (Shmueli & Prochaska, 2009). Alcohol intake also rises on days when people report having tackled highly demanding (vs. less demanding) tasks requiring self-regulation (Muraven, Collins, Shiffman, & Paty, 2005).The depletion effect has been framed as a fatigue effect. Portraying self-regulation failure as because of sapped energy suggests that the self is tired, just as a person feels tired after strenuous exercise or a long bout of energy expenditure. Initial and continued explanations of the limited-resource model likened the process to tiring and building up a muscle (Baumeister, Vohs & Tice, 2007 ; Baumeister & Heatherton,
1996), which suggests that using one’s self-regulation abil- ities culminates in fatigue.
The fatigue notion could accommodate many of the findings that pertain to the limited-resource model, as a recent meta- analysis noted (Hagger et al., 2010). After people engage in self-regulation, their bodies show evidence of effort by way of diminished heart rate variability (Segerstrom & Solberg Nes,
2007), weak neural errors (Inzlicht & Gutsell, 2007), and drops
in glucose (Gailliot et al., 2007). In addition, forces known to counteract depletion, such as cash incentives (Muraven & Slessareva, 2003), reminders of one’s core values (Schmeichel
& Vohs, 2009), the use of if–then contingencies (Webb & Sheeran, 2002), and—most germane—rest (Tyler & Burns,
2008), could aid self-regulation performance when people are fatigued (for motivational factors that overcome sleep depriva- tion, see Harrison & Horne, 1998). Recent work has connected sleep patterns to the limited-resource model. Self-reports of sleeping sufficiently (more than 7 hours) combined with con- sistent nightly sleep, relative to other combinations, were related to perceiving life events as less stressful (Barber, Munz, Bagsby, & Powell, 2009).
Yet other depletion effects do not suggest that fatigue is a crucial variable. When people are depleted of their self- regulatory resources, they experience an elongated perception of time (Vohs & Schmeichel, 2003) and adopt a low-level con- strual of the world (Schmeichel & Vohs, 2009), which are psy- chological changes but not fatigue indicators. Humor, which does not immediately pertain to fatigue, aids self-regulation after depletion (Tice, Baumeister, Shmeuli, & Muraven,
2007). Queries of people who have just engaged in a self- regulation task versus those who have not shown equivalent levels of self-perceived tiredness.
On balance, though, theory and data favor the notion that when people are depleted of their self-regulation resources, it results in a state that is akin to fatigue. Nonetheless, no direct evidence has been brought to bear on the issue. The current arti- cle reports two experiments, the first regarding lay percep- tions of how sleep deprivation would affect self-regulation and the second regarding the effects of experimentally manipulated sleep deprivation and self-regulatory resource availability on subsequent self-regulation. Both experiments centered on aggressiveness, which was chosen because of prior work linking aggressiveness to self-regulatory resource depletion (e.g., DeWall, Baumeister, Gailliot, & Stillman,
2007) and sleep deprivation (Haynes, Bootzin, Smith, Cousins, & Stevens, 2006; Kahn-Greene, Lipizzi, Conrad, Kamimori, & Killgore, 2006).
Self-Regulation and Aggression
Self-regulation is relevant to aggression because behaving aggressively represents a violation of social and personal norms for most people (Zimbardo, 1969). Children as young as 6 years old possess, and can report on, normative beliefs about the (in)appropriateness of aggressiveness (Huesmann & Guerra, 1997). Modern societies codify many aggressive beha- viors as wrong via the criminal justice system.
In line with this theorizing, there is a long history of concep- tualizing aggression as an unbridled reaction to frustration (e.g., Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939) and more recent empirical work connecting temporary lapses in self- regulation to aggression. Children who lack self-regulation skills are more likely to behave aggressively than those with strong self-regulation skills (Krueger, Caspi, Moffitt, White,
& Stouthamer-Loeber, 1996; Murphy & Eisenberg, 1997). Occupational researchers found that workers with low self- regulation exhibit aggression more than do workers with high self-regulation (Latham & Perlow, 1996). In fact, the robust finding that men are more aggressive than women has been said to be an artifact of the difference in self-regulation between genders. Once self-regulation scores are statistically held constant, gender differences in aggression disappear (Burton, Cullen, Evans, Alarid, & Dunaway, 1998).
A landmark theory by Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) con- cluded that poor self-regulation is the leading cause of crimin- ality and aggressiveness. Criminologists have used this perspective to develop and successfully implement a scale to
study crime, aggression, and delinquency (Arneklev, Grasmick, Tittle, & Bursik, 1993). Those data show that indi- viduals who lack self-regulation are more likely than others to enact a variety of violent, sadistic behaviors. A longitudinal study of nearly 1,000 people from ages 3 until 21 tested Gottfredson and Hirschi’s claims about deficient self- regulation and
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