Suppose, for example, that you read that the U.S. Department of Defens terjemahan - Suppose, for example, that you read that the U.S. Department of Defens Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

Suppose, for example, that you read

Suppose, for example, that you read that the U.S. Department of Defense was
spending $110 on an electronic diode worth $0.04, or $435 on a single claw
hammer, or $437 on a measuring tape (as was revealed to be true in the United
States in the 1980s).12 What could you do about this? You are unlikely to move
to another nation. You could vote out the party in power, but your vote for congressman
or president is based on a large number of factors, of which this is only
one. So there is really little you can do to end such inefficiency.
Now suppose instead that you found out when your local high school was
being renovated that the school was paying $75 each for the little metal covers
that are placed on electric sockets (which cost $0.80 apiece), as happened in
Chicago in 1992.13 This waste clearly raises the property taxes you pay to
finance the town government. In this case, you have a realistic option: you can
move to the town next door, which may be similar along most dimensions but
better in terms of fiscal discipline. With local public goods, we have a new preference
revelation device: mobility.
Tiebout argued that this threat of exit can induce efficiency in local public
goods production. Indeed, he went one step further and argued that under
certain conditions public goods provision will be fully efficient at the local level.
By the same logic that the competitive equilibrium delivers the efficient level
of private goods, competition across localities in public goods provision will
deliver the efficient level of public goods. Towns that don’t provide efficient
levels of public goods will lose citizens to towns that do achieve efficiency—
and will eventually go out of business.
The Formal Model In this section, we discuss the formal model that underlies
Tiebout’s intuition. This model makes a number of assumptions that are unrealistic,
as we discuss in the next section. Yet the main message of the model,
that competition across local jurisdictions places competitive pressures on the
provision of local public goods, is an important one that is consistent with the
evidence that we review later in this chapter.
The Tiebout model assumes that there are many people who divide themselves
up across towns that provide different levels of public goods. Each town
i has Ni residents, and finances its public goods spending, Gi, with a uniform
tax on all residents of Gi/Ni. Tiebout showed that in this model individuals
will divide themselves up so that each resident in any town has the same taste
for public goods, and so demands the same level of public goods spending, Gi.
This model solves the problems of preference revelation and aggregation
that cause difficulties with public provision of public goods. There is no problem
of revelation because there is no incentive for people to lie with a uniform
tax that finances the public goods. To illustrate this, let’s return to the
example of Jack and Ava from Chapter 9 (Figure 9.1), but now let’s assume
that fireworks cost 75¢ each. Suppose that Jack joins a town of 100 individuals
identical to himself. Such a town would vote to have 75 fireworks, with each
person paying 56¢ to finance the fireworks. Now suppose that once again Jack lies by saying that he has the same preferences as Ava. In Tiebout’s model, to
carry out that lie he would have to actually move to a town of individuals like
Ava (since those in his town want 75 fireworks, so that is the level provided).
In Ava’s town, they choose to only purchase 25 fireworks, with each individual
paying 19¢ for each firework. By moving to Ava’s town, Jack pays only one -
third as much for fireworks—but he only gets one -third as many fireworks as
a result. Jack has no incentive to lie because he must act on his lie by moving
to a different town that matches his stated preferences. That is, Jack can’t free
ride when individuals in each town are identical and equally share the financing
of the public good. The problem of preference aggregation is also solved
because everyone in town wants the same level of public goods Gi, and the
town government can simply divide that amount by the population to get the
appropriate financing.
With the preference revelation and aggregation problems solved, Lindahl
pricing works in the Tiebout model. Each individual reports his or her true
valuation of the public good, the valuations are added, and then each individual
is billed for the total cost of the public good divided by population size.
This is an equilibrium because every person is happy to pay his or her share of
the tax to get the public good, and the condition for optimal public goods
provision is met because the level of public goods provided is determined by
the sum of the individual benefits.
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Suppose, for example, that you read that the U.S. Department of Defense wasspending $110 on an electronic diode worth $0.04, or $435 on a single clawhammer, or $437 on a measuring tape (as was revealed to be true in the UnitedStates in the 1980s).12 What could you do about this? You are unlikely to moveto another nation. You could vote out the party in power, but your vote for congressmanor president is based on a large number of factors, of which this is onlyone. So there is really little you can do to end such inefficiency.Now suppose instead that you found out when your local high school wasbeing renovated that the school was paying $75 each for the little metal coversthat are placed on electric sockets (which cost $0.80 apiece), as happened inChicago in 1992.13 This waste clearly raises the property taxes you pay tofinance the town government. In this case, you have a realistic option: you canmove to the town next door, which may be similar along most dimensions butbetter in terms of fiscal discipline. With local public goods, we have a new preferencerevelation device: mobility.Tiebout argued that this threat of exit can induce efficiency in local publicgoods production. Indeed, he went one step further and argued that undercertain conditions public goods provision will be fully efficient at the local level.By the same logic that the competitive equilibrium delivers the efficient levelof private goods, competition across localities in public goods provision willdeliver the efficient level of public goods. Towns that don’t provide efficientlevels of public goods will lose citizens to towns that do achieve efficiency—and will eventually go out of business.The Formal Model In this section, we discuss the formal model that underliesTiebout’s intuition. This model makes a number of assumptions that are unrealistic,as we discuss in the next section. Yet the main message of the model,that competition across local jurisdictions places competitive pressures on theprovision of local public goods, is an important one that is consistent with theevidence that we review later in this chapter.The Tiebout model assumes that there are many people who divide themselvesup across towns that provide different levels of public goods. Each towni has Ni residents, and finances its public goods spending, Gi, with a uniformtax on all residents of Gi/Ni. Tiebout showed that in this model individualswill divide themselves up so that each resident in any town has the same tastefor public goods, and so demands the same level of public goods spending, Gi.This model solves the problems of preference revelation and aggregationthat cause difficulties with public provision of public goods. There is no problemof revelation because there is no incentive for people to lie with a uniformtax that finances the public goods. To illustrate this, let’s return to theexample of Jack and Ava from Chapter 9 (Figure 9.1), but now let’s assume
that fireworks cost 75¢ each. Suppose that Jack joins a town of 100 individuals
identical to himself. Such a town would vote to have 75 fireworks, with each
person paying 56¢ to finance the fireworks. Now suppose that once again Jack lies by saying that he has the same preferences as Ava. In Tiebout’s model, to
carry out that lie he would have to actually move to a town of individuals like
Ava (since those in his town want 75 fireworks, so that is the level provided).
In Ava’s town, they choose to only purchase 25 fireworks, with each individual
paying 19¢ for each firework. By moving to Ava’s town, Jack pays only one -
third as much for fireworks—but he only gets one -third as many fireworks as
a result. Jack has no incentive to lie because he must act on his lie by moving
to a different town that matches his stated preferences. That is, Jack can’t free
ride when individuals in each town are identical and equally share the financing
of the public good. The problem of preference aggregation is also solved
because everyone in town wants the same level of public goods Gi, and the
town government can simply divide that amount by the population to get the
appropriate financing.
With the preference revelation and aggregation problems solved, Lindahl
pricing works in the Tiebout model. Each individual reports his or her true
valuation of the public good, the valuations are added, and then each individual
is billed for the total cost of the public good divided by population size.
This is an equilibrium because every person is happy to pay his or her share of
the tax to get the public good, and the condition for optimal public goods
provision is met because the level of public goods provided is determined by
the sum of the individual benefits.
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Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:[Salinan]
Disalin!
Anggaplah, misalnya, bahwa Anda membaca bahwa Departemen Pertahanan AS telah
menghabiskan $ 110 pada dioda elektronik senilai $ 0,04, atau $ 435 pada cakar tunggal
palu, atau $ 437 pada pita pengukur (seperti yang diturunkan menjadi benar di Amerika
Serikat di tahun 1980-an) .12 Apa yang bisa Anda lakukan tentang hal ini? Anda tidak mungkin untuk pindah
ke negara lain. Anda bisa memilih keluar partai yang berkuasa, tapi suara Anda untuk anggota kongres
atau presiden didasarkan pada sejumlah besar faktor, yang ini hanya
satu. Sehingga benar-benar sedikit yang dapat Anda lakukan untuk mengakhiri inefisiensi tersebut.
Sekarang anggaplah sebaliknya bahwa Anda tahu ketika sekolah menengah setempat Anda sedang
sedang direnovasi bahwa sekolah membayar $ 75 masing-masing untuk selimut logam kecil
yang ditempatkan pada soket listrik (yang biaya $ 0,80 masing-masing), seperti yang terjadi di
Chicago pada 1.992,13 limbah ini jelas menimbulkan pajak properti Anda membayar untuk
membiayai pemerintah kota. Dalam hal ini, Anda memiliki pilihan yang realistis: Anda dapat
pindah ke kota sebelah, yang mungkin mirip sepanjang sebagian dimensi tetapi
lebih baik dalam hal disiplin fiskal. Dengan barang publik lokal, kami memiliki preferensi baru
perangkat wahyu:. Mobilitas
Tiebout berargumen bahwa ancaman ini keluar dapat menyebabkan efisiensi dalam masyarakat lokal
produksi barang. Memang, ia pergi satu langkah lebih jauh dan berpendapat bahwa di bawah
kondisi tertentu barang publik penyediaan akan sepenuhnya efisien di tingkat lokal.
Dengan logika yang sama bahwa ekuilibrium yang kompetitif memberikan tingkat efisien
barang pribadi, persaingan di daerah dalam penyediaan barang publik akan
memberikan tingkat efisien barang publik. Kota-kota yang tidak menyediakan efisien
tingkat barang publik akan kehilangan warga untuk kota-kota yang melakukan mencapai
efisiensi-dan akhirnya akan keluar dari bisnis.
Model Formal Pada bagian ini, kita membahas model formal yang mendasari
intuisi Tiebout ini. Model ini membuat sejumlah asumsi yang realistis,
seperti yang kita bahas pada bagian berikutnya. Namun pesan utama dari model,
bahwa persaingan di yurisdiksi lokal menempatkan tekanan kompetitif pada
penyediaan barang publik lokal, adalah salah satu yang penting yang konsisten dengan
bukti bahwa kami meninjau kemudian dalam bab ini.
Model Tiebout mengasumsikan bahwa ada banyak orang-orang yang membagi diri
sampai di kota-kota yang menyediakan berbagai tingkat barang publik. Setiap kota
i memiliki penduduk Ni, dan membiayai pengeluaran barang publik, Gi, dengan seragam
pajak pada semua warga Gi / Ni. Tiebout menunjukkan bahwa dalam model ini individu
akan membagi diri sehingga setiap penduduk di setiap kota memiliki rasa yang sama
untuk barang-barang publik, dan menuntut tingkat yang sama pengeluaran barang publik, Gi.
Model ini memecahkan masalah wahyu preferensi dan agregasi
yang menyebabkan kesulitan dengan ketentuan umum barang publik. Tidak ada masalah
wahyu karena tidak ada insentif bagi orang untuk berbohong dengan seragam
pajak yang membiayai barang-barang publik. Untuk menggambarkan hal ini, mari kita kembali ke
contoh Jack dan Ava dari Bab 9 (Gambar 9.1), tapi sekarang mari kita asumsikan
bahwa kembang api biaya 75 ¢ masing-masing. Misalkan Jack bergabung dengan kota 100 individu
identik dengan dirinya. Kota tersebut akan memilih untuk memiliki 75 kembang api, dengan masing-masing
orang membayar 56 ¢ untuk membiayai kembang api. Sekarang anggaplah bahwa sekali lagi Jack terletak dengan mengatakan bahwa ia memiliki preferensi yang sama seperti Ava. Dalam model Tiebout, untuk
melaksanakan kebohongan dia harus benar-benar pindah ke sebuah kota individu seperti
Ava (karena mereka di kotanya ingin 75 kembang api, sehingga adalah tingkat tersedia).
Di kota Ava, mereka memilih untuk hanya membeli 25 kembang api, dengan masing-masing individu
membayar 19 ¢ untuk setiap kembang api. Dengan pindah ke kota Ava, Jack hanya membayar satu -
ketiga sebagai banyak untuk kembang api-tapi dia hanya mendapat satu -Ketiga sebanyak kembang api sebagai
hasilnya. Jack tidak memiliki insentif untuk berbohong karena dia harus bertindak atas kebohongannya dengan memindahkan
ke sebuah kota yang berbeda yang cocok preferensi dinyatakan nya. Artinya, Jack tidak bisa bebas
naik ketika individu di setiap kota yang identik dan sama-sama berbagi pembiayaan
dari publik. Masalah agregasi preferensi juga diselesaikan
karena semua orang di kota ingin tingkat yang sama Gi barang publik, dan
pemerintah kota hanya dapat membagi jumlah yang oleh penduduk untuk mendapatkan
pembiayaan yang sesuai.
Dengan wahyu preferensi dan agregasi masalah diselesaikan, Lindahl
harga bekerja dalam model Tiebout. Setiap individu melaporkan atau yang sebenarnya
penilaian dari publik, valuasi ditambahkan, dan kemudian setiap individu
adalah tagihan untuk total biaya barang publik dibagi dengan ukuran populasi.
Ini merupakan keseimbangan karena setiap orang senang untuk membayar atau bagiannya dari
pajak untuk mendapatkan barang publik, dan kondisi barang publik yang optimal
penyediaan terpenuhi karena tingkat barang publik yang disediakan ditentukan oleh
jumlah dari manfaat individu.
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