The stress on the brides' industrio

The stress on the brides' industriousness, wealth, and chastity in collectivist societies is a consequence of the fact that marriage in such a society is a contract between families rather than between individuals. Industriousness,wealth, and chastity are the aspects that families can observe. In many collectivist societies, marriages are arranged by a broker, and the bride and groom may have little say in the choice of their partner; sometimes they are not even supposed to meet before the wedding day. This does not mean that such marriages are less happy. Research in India has shown more marital satisfaction in arranged marriages than in love marriages and more in Indian love marriages than in Arnerican marriages.While cultural individualism fosters the valuing of romantie love, certain aspects of individualism at the psychological level make developing intimacy problematic. In a survey about the role of love in marriage,answered by emale and male undergraduate students in eleven countries, one question ran: If a man(woman) had all the other qualities you desired. would you marry this person “if you were not in love with him(her)?” The answers varied with the degree of individualism in the eleven societies. From 4 percent “yes" and 86 percent"no" in the United States to so percent “yes” and 39 percent"no" in Pakistan In collectivist societies, con- siderations other than love weigh heavily in marriage.

Table 3.2 summarizes the key differences between collectivist and individualist societies described so far.


Language, Personallty, and Behavior in Individuallst and collectivist cultures
A Japanese-Australian couple, Yoshi and Emiko Kashima, he a psychologist, she a linguist, studied the relationship between culture and language. Among other features of languages, they studied pronoun drop, the practice of omitting the 6rst-person singular pronoun("I") from a sentence(for example, "I love you" in Spanish: te quiero rather than yo te quiero) They included thirty-nine languages used in seventy-one different countries and looked for correlations with a number of other variables. The strongest correlation they found was with IDV Languages spoken in individualist cultures tend to require speakers to use the "I"pronoun when referring to themselves; languages spoken in collectivist cultures allow or prescribe dropping this pronoun. The English language, spoken in the most individualist countries in Table 3.1 is the only one we know of that writes "I" with a capital letter.
Languages change over time, but only slowly The first-person singular pronoun was used in western European languages in medieval poetry An Arab saying dating from the same period is "the satanic be damned!" The link between culture scores and language features illustrates the very old roots of cultural dillerences.
The Chinese American anthropologist Francis Hsu has argued that the Chinese language has no equivalent for Nrsonaho in the Western sense, Personality in the Weat is a separate entity, distinet from society and cul- ture a a attribute of the individual. The closest translation into Chinese is rew, but this includes not only the individual but also his or her intimate societal and cultural environment that makes his or her existence meaningful

The same point was made by two U.S. psychologists, Hazel Rose Markus and Shinobu Kitayama, the latter of Japanese descent. They argued that many Asian cultures have conceptions of individuality that insist on the fundamental relatedness of individuals to each other, while in America individuals seek to maintain their independence from others by focusing on the self and by discovering and expressing their unique inner attributes The way people experience their self differs with the culture. In our interpretation individ ualist cultures encourage an independent self collectivist cultures, an interdependent self.
U.S. psychologist Solomon E Asch (1907-96) designed a rather nasty experiment to test to what extent US individuals would stick to their own judgment against a majority.The subject believed he or she was a member of a group of people who had to judge which of two lines was longer.Unknown to the subject all other group members were confederates of the experimenter and deliberately gave false answer. In this situation, a sizable percentage of the subjects conformed to the group opinion against their own conviction. Since the 1950s this experiment has been replicated in a number of countries The percentage of subjects conforming to the false judgment was negatively correlated with the countries' IDV score. Personality research is a core subject of psychology There used to be a confusing variety of Personality tests available, but since the 1990s a consensus has been building that there is a set of five dominant separate and useful dimensions of personality variation (the so-called big five):
O: Opennesess to experience versus rigidity
C: Conscientiousness versus introversion
E: Exrtaversion versus introversion
A: Agreeableness versus ill-temperedness
N: Neuroticim versus emotional stability
U.S. psychologists Paul T. Costa and Robert R. McCrae developed a self scored personality test based on the Big Five, the Revised NEo Personality inventory (NEO-PI-R). It has been translated from American English into a number of other languages. Mean scores on the five NEO PI-R dimensions for comparative samples from thirty-three countries showed significant correlations with all four IBM culture dimensions The highest correlation was between extraversion and IDV. Extraversion (as opposed to introversion) combines the following set of self-scored personality facets that tend to go together: warmth,gregariousness,assertiveness,activity,excitement seeking, and positive emotions. What the correlations show is that on average, people in more individualist cultures rate themselves higher on these facets than people in more collectivist culters.It may look surprising that people in cultures that encourage an independent self score themselves higher on gregariousness, but it is precisely when reletionships between people are not prescribed by the culture that the conscious decision to get together becomes more important.
U.S.psychologist David Matsumoto analyzed a large number of studies of the recognition of emotions in facial expressions students classified the emotions from photos of faces into happiness, surprise, sadness, fear, disgust, and anger. For fifteen countries from the IBM set, percentages of correctly perceiving happiness were correlated positively with observers IDV and those perceiving sadness negatively our interpretation is that individualist cultures encourage the showing of happiness but discourage the sharing of sadness; collectivist cultures do the opposite." This is in line with the correlation between LDV and self-scored positive emotions as described in the previous paragraph.
U.S.professor Robert Levine asked his international students to collect data on the pace of life in their hometown.One measure collected was walking speed,defined as the stopwatch time it took seventy healthy adults (of both genders,fifty-fifty) to cover a distance of sixty feet in one of two uncrowded location in each citys, when walking alone on a clear summer day during main business hours.From thirty-one countries covered,twenty-three overlapped with the IBM se.Walking speed turned out to be stongly correlated with the IDV.People in individualist cultures tended to walk faster. We interpret this as a physical expression of their self concept: people in more individualist cultures are more active in trying to get somewhere.
Powerful information about differences in behavior across countries can be obtained from consumer surveys Dutch marketing professor and consultant Marieke de Mooij, comparing fifteen European countries, found many meaningful correlations between consumer behavior data and IDV. Persons in high-IDV countries were more likely than those in low-IDV countries to live in detached houses and less likely to live in apartments or flats. They were more likely to have a private garden and to own a caravan (trailer, mobile home) for leisure. They more frequently had dogs as pets consumption of pet and especially cats, as measured by the household's food.(Cats are more individualistic animals than dogs) They were more likely to possess home and life insurance. They more often engaged in do- it-yourself activities: painting walls and woodwork, wall papering, home carpentering, electric innovations and repairs, and plumbing. In an these cases, LDV explained the country diferences better than national wealth. They all suggest a lifestyle in which the person tries to be self-supporting and not dependent on others.

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

Stres berindustri brides', kekayaan dan kesucian dalam kolektif masyarakat merupakan konsekuensi dari fakta bahwa perkawinan seperti masyarakat adalah kontrak antara keluarga dan bukan antara individu. Kerajinan, kekayaan, dan kesucian adalah aspek yang keluarga dapat mengamati. Di banyak kolektif masyarakat Pernikahan diatur oleh broker, dan mempelai mungkin memiliki sedikit mengatakan dalam pemilihan pasangan mereka; kadang-kadang mereka tidak bahkan seharusnya bertemu sebelum hari pernikahan. Ini tidak berarti bahwa seperti pernikahan kurang bahagia. Penelitian di India telah menunjukkan lebih banyak kepuasan perkawinan perjodohan daripada cinta perkawinan dan banyak lagi di India cinta perkawinan daripada dalam pernikahan Arnerican. Sementara budaya individualisme menumbuhkan menilai romantie cinta, aspek-aspek tertentu individualisme di membuat tingkat psikologis mengembangkan keintiman yang bermasalah. Dalam sebuah survei tentang peran cinta dalam perkawinan, dijawab oleh emale dan laki-laki mahasiswa S1 sebelas negara, satu pertanyaan berlari: jika man(woman) memiliki semua kualitas lain yang Anda inginkan. akan Anda menikahi orang ini "jika Anda tidak cinta dengan him(her)?" Jawaban bervariasi dengan tingkat individualisme sebelas masyarakat. Dari 4 persen "ya" dan 86 persen "tidak" di Amerika Serikat untuk jadi persen "ya" dan 39 persen "tidak" di Pakistan di kolektif masyarakat, con-siderations selain cinta timbang berat dalam perkawinan. 3.2 tabel ringkasan tentang perbedaan utama antara kolektif dan masyarakat individualis yang digambarkan sejauh ini. Bahasa, Personallty, dan perilaku dalam Individuallst dan kolektif budaya Beberapa Jepang-Australia, Yoshi dan Emiko Kashima, dia seorang psikolog, dia seorang ahli bahasa, mempelajari hubungan antara budaya dan bahasa. Di antara fitur lain bahasa, mereka mempelajari kata ganti drop, praktek menghilangkan pronoun("I") tunggal 6rst-orang dari hukuman (misalnya, "Aku mencintaimu" dalam bahasa Spanyol: te quiero daripada yo te quiero) mereka termasuk tiga puluh sembilan bahasa digunakan dalam tujuh puluh satu negara yang berbeda dan mencari korelasi dengan sejumlah variabel lain. Mereka menemukan korelasi terkuat adalah dengan IDV bahasa yang diucapkan di budaya individualis cenderung untuk memerlukan speaker untuk menggunakan kata ganti "Aku" ketika mengacu pada dirinya sendiri; bahasa yang digunakan dalam budaya kolektif mengizinkan atau meresepkan menjatuhkan kata ganti ini. Bahasa Inggris digunakan di negara-negara paling individualis Tabel 3.1 adalah hanya satu kita tahu dari menulis bahwa "Saya" dengan huruf kapital. Bahasa berubah dari waktu ke waktu, tetapi hanya perlahan-lahan kata ganti orang pertama tunggal digunakan dalam bahasa-bahasa Eropa Barat dalam abad pertengahan puisi Arab mengatakan berasal dari periode yang sama adalah "setan terkutuk!" Hubungan antara nilai budaya dan bahasa fitur menggambarkan akar sangat tua dari kebudayaan dillerences. Antropolog Amerika Cina Francis Hsu berpendapat bahwa bahasa Cina telah ada yang setara untuk Nrsonaho dalam arti Barat, kepribadian dalam Weat adalah sebuah entitas yang terpisah, distinet dari masyarakat dan cul-saan atribut individu. Terjemahan yang paling dekat ke dalam bahasa Cina adalah rew, tapi ini termasuk tidak hanya individu, tetapi juga nya intim masyarakat, budaya, dan lingkungan yang membuat nya keberadaan bermaknaTitik yang sama dibuat oleh dua US psikolog, Hazel Rose Markus dan Shinobu Kitayama, yang kedua keturunan Jepang. Mereka berpendapat bahwa banyak budaya Asia memiliki konsepsi individualitas yang bersikeras keterkaitan mendasar individu untuk satu sama lain, sementara di Amerika individu berusaha untuk mempertahankan kemerdekaan mereka dari orang lain dengan berfokus pada diri sendiri dan menemukan dan mengekspresikan atribut batin mereka unik cara orang pengalaman diri mereka berbeda dengan budaya. Di ualist kami asasi individu interpretasi budaya mendorong budaya kolektif diri independen, diri yang saling bergantung.U.S. psychologist Solomon E Asch (1907-96) designed a rather nasty experiment to test to what extent US individuals would stick to their own judgment against a majority.The subject believed he or she was a member of a group of people who had to judge which of two lines was longer.Unknown to the subject all other group members were confederates of the experimenter and deliberately gave false answer. In this situation, a sizable percentage of the subjects conformed to the group opinion against their own conviction. Since the 1950s this experiment has been replicated in a number of countries The percentage of subjects conforming to the false judgment was negatively correlated with the countries' IDV score. Personality research is a core subject of psychology There used to be a confusing variety of Personality tests available, but since the 1990s a consensus has been building that there is a set of five dominant separate and useful dimensions of personality variation (the so-called big five):O: Opennesess to experience versus rigidityC: Conscientiousness versus introversionE: Exrtaversion versus introversionA: Agreeableness versus ill-temperednessN: Neuroticim versus emotional stabilityU.S. psychologists Paul T. Costa and Robert R. McCrae developed a self scored personality test based on the Big Five, the Revised NEo Personality inventory (NEO-PI-R). It has been translated from American English into a number of other languages. Mean scores on the five NEO PI-R dimensions for comparative samples from thirty-three countries showed significant correlations with all four IBM culture dimensions The highest correlation was between extraversion and IDV. Extraversion (as opposed to introversion) combines the following set of self-scored personality facets that tend to go together: warmth,gregariousness,assertiveness,activity,excitement seeking, and positive emotions. What the correlations show is that on average, people in more individualist cultures rate themselves higher on these facets than people in more collectivist culters.It may look surprising that people in cultures that encourage an independent self score themselves higher on gregariousness, but it is precisely when reletionships between people are not prescribed by the culture that the conscious decision to get together becomes more important. U.S.psychologist David Matsumoto analyzed a large number of studies of the recognition of emotions in facial expressions students classified the emotions from photos of faces into happiness, surprise, sadness, fear, disgust, and anger. For fifteen countries from the IBM set, percentages of correctly perceiving happiness were correlated positively with observers IDV and those perceiving sadness negatively our interpretation is that individualist cultures encourage the showing of happiness but discourage the sharing of sadness; collectivist cultures do the opposite." This is in line with the correlation between LDV and self-scored positive emotions as described in the previous paragraph.U.S.professor Robert Levine asked his international students to collect data on the pace of life in their hometown.One measure collected was walking speed,defined as the stopwatch time it took seventy healthy adults (of both genders,fifty-fifty) to cover a distance of sixty feet in one of two uncrowded location in each citys, when walking alone on a clear summer day during main business hours.From thirty-one countries covered,twenty-three overlapped with the IBM se.Walking speed turned out to be stongly correlated with the IDV.People in individualist cultures tended to walk faster. We interpret this as a physical expression of their self concept: people in more individualist cultures are more active in trying to get somewhere.Informasi kuat tentang perbedaan dalam perilaku di seluruh negara dapat diperoleh dari survei konsumen pemasaran Belanda profesor dan konsultan Marieke de Mooij, membandingkan lima belas negara-negara Eropa, menemukan banyak bermakna korelasi antara data perilaku konsumen dan IDV. Orang-orang di negara-negara yang tinggi-IDV yang lebih mungkin daripada di negara-negara rendah-IDV untuk tinggal di rumah-rumah terpisah dan kurang kemungkinan untuk tinggal di apartemen atau flat. Mereka adalah lebih mungkin untuk memiliki taman pribadi dan memiliki caravan (trailer, rumah mobile) untuk rekreasi. Mereka lebih sering memiliki anjing sebagai hewan peliharaan konsumsi dan hewan peliharaan terutama kucing, yang diukur dengan makanan rumah tangga. (Kucing adalah hewan individualistis lebih daripada anjing) Mereka adalah lebih mungkin untuk memiliki rumah dan asuransi jiwa. Mereka lebih sering terlibat dalam kegiatan do-it-yourself: lukisan dinding dan kayu, dinding papering, rumah carpentering, listrik inovasi dan perbaikan, dan pipa. Dalam kasus, LDV menjelaskan perbedaan negara lebih baik daripada kekayaan nasional. Mereka semua menyarankan gaya hidup di mana orang mencoba untuk menjadi mandiri dan tidak bergantung pada orang lain.