practices which inhibit in-depth analysis of political parties’ polici terjemahan - practices which inhibit in-depth analysis of political parties’ polici Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

practices which inhibit in-depth an

practices which inhibit in-depth analysis of political parties’ policies. The
broadcasters, for example, fasten pack-like onto the day’s soundbites (often
deliberately planted by the politicians’ public relations staff), which are then
repeated endlessly. Hart’s analysis of TV coverage of US presidential speeches
shows just how few, on average, of a speechmaker’s words are reported in
the news (1987), and how much amounts to mere repetition of a few key
words and phrases. In this context, to the extent that television is the major
source of political information for most people, the advertisement is the
format in which a political actor has the greatest opportunity to impart ‘the
issues’ as he or she sees them.
Of course, as in the world of commerce, the advertisement does not merely
inform individuals in society about the choices available to them as political
consumers. They are also designed to persuade. And in persuasion, as well as
information dissemination, the advertisement has clear advantages for the
politician. Most obviously, editorial control resides with the politician, not
the media. Within legal constraints of truth and taste, which vary from one
country to another, the producers of political advertisements have the
freedom to say what they like; to replace the journalists’ agenda with their
own; to play to their clients’ strengths and highlight the opponents’
weaknesses. The advertisement, in short, is the only mass media form over
the construction of which the politician has complete control. Or was, until
the emergence of Twitter, Facebook and online social networking opened
up another, and in some ways more attractive channel for campaigning
politicians, and those in government, to communicate their messages
‘unmediated’, as it were. We will discuss the new digitised forms of political
communication more fully in the chapter on public relations. Here we note
that the rise of the internet has substantially expanded the range of alternatives to traditional print and TV advertising available to political actors.
Paid advertising remains important, though, given the wide, if declining,
reach of TV and newspapers. Posters and billboards also remain attractive
for political advertisers, particularly in countries such as the UK where
advertising on TV is prohibited by legislation.
1
A striking feature of the digital era of political communication is the
capacity of citizen-voters to subvert official campaign messages with ‘mash
ups’ and other forms of digitally altered image. In the 2010 UK campaign
David Cameron and the Conservatives were extensively satirised in this
manner (as all the parties were). In one image, as reported by the Daily
Telegraph, millionaire Tory leader David Cameron is depicted as Freddie
Mercury with the caption, ‘I’m just a rich boy and nobody loves me. He’s just
a rich boy, from a rich family’.
2
Another ‘mash up’ played on the opposition’s
attempt to define Cameron as an upper class throwback, depicting Gordon
Brown and variations on the caption ‘Step outside, Tory boy’ (see Figure 6.6).
On all paid-for platforms, the viewer is aware of the sender’s control and
may reject the message contained in an advertisement. The political actor
COMMUNICATING POLITICS
86
controls the encodingof an advertisement, but not its decoding. That said,
a New York Times/CBS poll conducted during the 1988 US presidential
election found that 25 per cent of the voters claimed that political ads had
influenced their choice of candidate (Denton and Woodward, 1990, p. 56).
Notwithstanding the uncertainty inherent in transmitting political
messages through the format of advertising, it has steadily grown as a proportion of campaign resources. In 1988, George Bush and Michael Dukakis
spent between them some $85 million on television advertising (ibid., p. 56).
During the 1992 presidential campaign George Bush’s team spent upwards
of $60 million on television advertising alone. In 1996 the Clinton campaign
spent more than $50 million. In 2004 incumbent George W. Bush and
Democratic challenger John Kerry spent a record $600 million on TV and
radio advertising. In the 2005 British general election campaign, a total of
£42 million was spent by the parties. In 2010, the figure was still higher
though limited by a cap of £18m on each party’s spending. The UK Ministry
of Justice estimated that the 2010 general election cost the parties and their
candidates around £82 million in total. This figure paled in comparison to
the estimated $1 billion spent by US presidential candidates in 2008. In the
US, most of this sum went to paid-for TV spots. By the same token, spending
on the 2010 congressional elections was estimated at around $3.7 billion.
3
Whether advertisements work or not, therefore, no discussion of political
communication would be complete without consideration of them.
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practices which inhibit in-depth analysis of political parties’ policies. Thebroadcasters, for example, fasten pack-like onto the day’s soundbites (oftendeliberately planted by the politicians’ public relations staff), which are thenrepeated endlessly. Hart’s analysis of TV coverage of US presidential speechesshows just how few, on average, of a speechmaker’s words are reported inthe news (1987), and how much amounts to mere repetition of a few keywords and phrases. In this context, to the extent that television is the majorsource of political information for most people, the advertisement is theformat in which a political actor has the greatest opportunity to impart ‘theissues’ as he or she sees them.Of course, as in the world of commerce, the advertisement does not merelyinform individuals in society about the choices available to them as politicalconsumers. They are also designed to persuade. And in persuasion, as well asinformation dissemination, the advertisement has clear advantages for thepolitician. Most obviously, editorial control resides with the politician, notthe media. Within legal constraints of truth and taste, which vary from onecountry to another, the producers of political advertisements have thefreedom to say what they like; to replace the journalists’ agenda with theirown; to play to their clients’ strengths and highlight the opponents’weaknesses. The advertisement, in short, is the only mass media form overthe construction of which the politician has complete control. Or was, untilthe emergence of Twitter, Facebook and online social networking opened up another, and in some ways more attractive channel for campaigningpoliticians, and those in government, to communicate their messages‘unmediated’, as it were. We will discuss the new digitised forms of politicalcommunication more fully in the chapter on public relations. Here we notethat the rise of the internet has substantially expanded the range of alternatives to traditional print and TV advertising available to political actors.Paid advertising remains important, though, given the wide, if declining,reach of TV and newspapers. Posters and billboards also remain attractivefor political advertisers, particularly in countries such as the UK whereadvertising on TV is prohibited by legislation.1A striking feature of the digital era of political communication is thecapacity of citizen-voters to subvert official campaign messages with ‘mashups’ and other forms of digitally altered image. In the 2010 UK campaignDavid Cameron and the Conservatives were extensively satirised in thismanner (as all the parties were). In one image, as reported by the DailyTelegraph, millionaire Tory leader David Cameron is depicted as FreddieMercury with the caption, ‘I’m just a rich boy and nobody loves me. He’s justa rich boy, from a rich family’.2Another ‘mash up’ played on the opposition’sattempt to define Cameron as an upper class throwback, depicting GordonBrown and variations on the caption ‘Step outside, Tory boy’ (see Figure 6.6).On all paid-for platforms, the viewer is aware of the sender’s control andmay reject the message contained in an advertisement. The political actorCOMMUNICATING POLITICS86controls the encodingof an advertisement, but not its decoding. That said,a New York Times/CBS poll conducted during the 1988 US presidentialelection found that 25 per cent of the voters claimed that political ads hadinfluenced their choice of candidate (Denton and Woodward, 1990, p. 56).Notwithstanding the uncertainty inherent in transmitting politicalmessages through the format of advertising, it has steadily grown as a proportion of campaign resources. In 1988, George Bush and Michael Dukakisspent between them some $85 million on television advertising (ibid., p. 56).During the 1992 presidential campaign George Bush’s team spent upwardsof $60 million on television advertising alone. In 1996 the Clinton campaignspent more than $50 million. In 2004 incumbent George W. Bush andDemocratic challenger John Kerry spent a record $600 million on TV andradio advertising. In the 2005 British general election campaign, a total of£42 million was spent by the parties. In 2010, the figure was still higherthough limited by a cap of £18m on each party’s spending. The UK Ministryof Justice estimated that the 2010 general election cost the parties and theircandidates around £82 million in total. This figure paled in comparison tothe estimated $1 billion spent by US presidential candidates in 2008. In theUS, most of this sum went to paid-for TV spots. By the same token, spendingon the 2010 congressional elections was estimated at around $3.7 billion.3Whether advertisements work or not, therefore, no discussion of politicalcommunication would be complete without consideration of them.
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Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:[Salinan]
Disalin!
praktek-praktek yang menghambat analisis mendalam dari kebijakan partai politik '. Para
penyiar, misalnya, kencangkan pack seperti ke hari soundbites (sering
sengaja ditanam oleh masyarakat staf hubungan para politisi '), yang kemudian
diulang tanpa henti. Analisis Hart cakupan TV AS pidato presiden
menunjukkan betapa sedikit, rata-rata, kata-kata yang speechmaker ini dilaporkan dalam
berita (1987), dan berapa banyak jumlah belaka pengulangan kunci beberapa
kata dan frase. Dalam konteks ini, sampai-sampai televisi adalah utama
sumber informasi politik bagi kebanyakan orang, iklan adalah
format di mana aktor politik memiliki kesempatan terbesar untuk memberikan 'para
isu 'karena ia melihat mereka.
Tentu saja, seperti dalam dunia perdagangan, iklan tidak hanya
menginformasikan individu dalam masyarakat tentang pilihan yang tersedia bagi mereka sebagai politik
konsumen. Mereka juga dirancang untuk membujuk. Dan dalam persuasi, serta
penyebaran informasi, iklan memiliki keuntungan yang jelas untuk
politisi. Paling jelas, kontrol editorial berada dengan politisi, bukan
media. Dalam batasan hukum kebenaran dan rasa, yang bervariasi dari satu
negara ke negara lain, produsen iklan politik memiliki
kebebasan untuk mengatakan apa yang mereka inginkan; untuk menggantikan agenda wartawan dengan mereka
sendiri; bermain untuk klien mereka kekuatan dan menyoroti lawan '
kelemahan. Iklan, singkatnya, adalah satu-satunya bentuk media massa atas
pembangunan yang politisi memiliki kontrol penuh. Atau, sampai
munculnya Twitter, Facebook dan jejaring sosial online dibuka
naik lagi, dan dalam beberapa hal channel lebih menarik untuk kampanye
politisi, dan orang-orang di pemerintahan, untuk mengkomunikasikan pesan mereka
'unmediated', seolah-olah. Kita akan membahas bentuk digital baru politik
komunikasi yang lebih lengkap dalam bab tentang public relations. Di sini kita perhatikan
bahwa munculnya internet telah secara substansial memperluas jangkauan alternatif untuk cetak tradisional dan iklan TV yang tersedia untuk aktor-aktor politik.
Iklan berbayar tetap penting, meskipun, mengingat lebar, jika menurun,
mencapai TV dan koran. Poster dan billboard juga tetap menarik
bagi pengiklan politik, terutama di negara-negara seperti Inggris di mana
iklan di TV dilarang oleh undang-undang.
1
Sebuah fitur mencolok dari era digital komunikasi politik adalah
kapasitas warga-pemilih untuk menumbangkan pesan kampanye resmi dengan 'tumbuk
up 'dan bentuk lain dari gambar diubah secara digital. Dalam kampanye Inggris 2010
David Cameron dan Partai Konservatif yang secara luas satirised dalam
cara (karena semua pihak yang). Dalam satu gambar, seperti dilansir Daily
Telegraph, jutawan pemimpin Tory David Cameron digambarkan sebagai Freddie
Mercury dengan judul, "Aku hanya seorang anak kaya dan tak ada yang mencintaiku. Dia hanya
seorang anak kaya, dari keluarga kaya '.
2
lain 'tumbuk up' dimainkan pada oposisi
upaya untuk mendefinisikan Cameron sebagai kelas throwback atas, menggambarkan Gordon
Brown dan variasi pada judul 'Step luar, Tory boy' (lihat Gambar 6.6).
Pada semua dibayar-untuk platform, pemirsa menyadari kontrol pengirim dan
dapat menolak pesan yang terkandung dalam iklan. Aktor politik
BERKOMUNIKASI POLITIK
86
kontrol encodingof yang iklan, tapi tidak decoding nya. Yang mengatakan,
jajak pendapat New York Times / CBS yang dilakukan selama presiden 1988 US
pemilihan menemukan bahwa 25 persen dari pemilih menyatakan bahwa iklan politik telah
mempengaruhi pilihan mereka calon (Denton dan Woodward, 1990, hal. 56).
Meskipun ketidakpastian melekat dalam transmisi politik
pesan melalui format iklan, telah terus tumbuh sebagai proporsi sumber kampanye. Pada tahun 1988, George Bush dan Michael Dukakis
menghabiskan antara mereka beberapa $ 85.000.000 pada iklan televisi (ibid., hal. 56).
Selama tim 1992 kampanye presiden George Bush menghabiskan lebih
dari $ 60.000.000 pada iklan televisi saja. Pada tahun 1996 kampanye Clinton
menghabiskan lebih dari $ 50 juta. Pada tahun 2004 Presiden George W. Bush dan
penantang Demokrat John Kerry menghabiskan rekor $ 600 juta untuk TV dan
iklan radio. Pada tahun 2005 British kampanye pemilihan umum, total
£ 42.000.000 dihabiskan oleh para pihak. Pada tahun 2010, angka itu masih lebih tinggi
meskipun dibatasi oleh topi £ 18m pada pengeluaran masing-masing pihak. Inggris Departemen
Kehakiman memperkirakan bahwa pemilihan umum 2010 biaya pihak dan mereka
kandidat sekitar £ 82.000.000 total. Angka ini memucat dibandingkan dengan
perkiraan $ 1000000000 dihabiskan oleh AS calon presiden pada tahun 2008. Di
Amerika Serikat, sebagian besar dari jumlah ini pergi ke dibayar-untuk tempat TV. Dengan cara yang sama, pengeluaran
pada pemilu 2010 kongres diperkirakan sekitar $ 3,7 milyar.
3
Apakah iklan bekerja atau tidak, oleh karena itu, tidak ada diskusi tentang politik
komunikasi akan lengkap tanpa pertimbangan dari mereka.
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