• Culture can affect technology tra

• Culture can affect technology transfer, managerial attitudes, managerial ideology and even business government relationships.

• Culture affects how people think and behave.

• The cultural impact on international management is reflected by basic beliefs and behaviours.

• Culture of society can directly affect management approaches:

o Centralised vs. decentralised decision making – In some society’s top managers make all important organisational decisions. In others these decisions are diffused throughout the enterprise and middle and lower level managers actively participate and make key decisions.

o Safety vs. risk – In some societies, organisational decision makers are risk averse and have great difficulty with conditions of uncertainty. In others, risk taking is encouraged and decision making under uncertainty is common.

o Individual vs. group reward – In some countries personnel who do outstandingwork are given individual rewards in the form of bonuses and commission. In others, cultural norms require group rewards and individual rewards are frowned on.

o Informal vs. formal procedures – In some societies, much is accomplished through informal means. In others formal procedures are set forth and followed rigidly.

o High vs. low organisational loyalty – In some societies people identify very strongly with the organisation or employer. In others people identify with their occupational groups.

o Cooperation vs. competition – Some societies encourage cooperation between their people. Others encourage competition.

o Short term vs. long term horizons – Some cultures focus most heavily on short term horizons such as short range goals of profit and efficiency. Others are more interested in long range goals such as market share and technological development.

o Stability vs. innovation – The culture of some countries encourages stability and resistance to change. The culture of others outs high value on innovation and change.

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:

• Budaya dapat mempengaruhi transfer teknologi, sikap manajerial, ideologi manajerial dan bahkan hubungan pemerintah bisnis. • Budaya mempengaruhi bagaimana orang berpikir dan berperilaku. • Dampak budaya pada manajemen internasional tercermin oleh keyakinan dasar dan perilaku. • Budaya masyarakat dapat secara langsung mempengaruhi manajemen pendekatan: o Terpusat vs pengambilan keputusan terdesentralisasi - Dalam manajer puncak beberapa masyarakat membuat semua keputusan organisasi penting. Di lain keputusan ini disebarkan di seluruh perusahaan dan manajer tingkat menengah dan bawah secara aktif berpartisipasi dan membuat keputusan penting. O Keselamatan vs risiko - Dalam beberapa masyarakat, pengambil keputusan organisasi yang menolak risiko dan mengalami kesulitan besar dengan kondisi ketidakpastian. Di lain, pengambilan risiko didorong dan pengambilan keputusan di bawah ketidakpastian umum. O Individu vs reward kelompok - Di beberapa negara personel yang melakukan outstandingwork diberikan penghargaan individu dalam bentuk bonus dan komisi. Pada orang lain, norma-norma budaya memerlukan imbalan kelompok dan penghargaan individu disukai. O Informal vs prosedur resmi - dalam beberapa masyarakat, banyak yang dicapai melalui cara-cara informal. Di lain prosedur formal yang ditetapkan dan diikuti secara kaku. O Tinggi vs loyalitas organisasi rendah - Dalam beberapa masyarakat orang mengidentifikasi sangat kuat dengan organisasi atau majikan. Di lain orang mengidentifikasi dengan kelompok-kelompok kerja mereka. O Kerjasama vs kompetisi - Beberapa masyarakat mendorong kerja sama antara orang-orang mereka. Lainnya mendorong persaingan. O jangka pendek vs cakrawala jangka panjang - Beberapa budaya fokus yang paling berat pada cakrawala jangka pendek seperti tujuan jarak dekat dari keuntungan dan efisiensi. Lain lebih tertarik pada tujuan jangka panjang seperti pangsa pasar dan pengembangan teknologi. O Stabilitas vs inovasi - Budaya beberapa negara mendorong stabilitas dan resistensi terhadap perubahan. Budaya lain beluk nilai tinggi pada inovasi dan perubahan.