1. The poverty of philosophy as a scienceThroughout its history philos terjemahan - 1. The poverty of philosophy as a scienceThroughout its history philos Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

1. The poverty of philosophy as a s

1. The poverty of philosophy as a science
Throughout its history philosophy has been thought to be a member of a community of intellectualdisciplines united by their common pursuit of knowledge. It has sometimes been thought to be thequeen of the sciences, at other times merely their under-labourer. But irrespective of its social status,it was held to be a participant in the quest for knowledge – a cognitive discipline.
Cognitive disciplines may be a priori or empirical. The distinction between what is a prioriand what is empirical is epistemological. It turns, as Frege noted, on the ultimate justification for holding something to be true. If the truths which a cognitive discipline attains are warranted neitherby observation nor by experiment (nor by inference therefrom), then they are a priori. Otherwise theyare empirical. The natural and moral sciences (the Geisteswissenschaften) strive for and attain empirical knowledge. The mathematical sciences are a priori.
2. Philosophy as the midwife of the sciences
Many questions that were opened by philosophers were subsequently handed over to scientists, forexample questions concerning the constitution of things, the infinity or finitude of the universe, thenature of the stars, the origin of life, the innateness of ideas. Physics, although it continued to beknown as natural philosophy down to the nineteenth century, became independent of philosophy inthe seventeenth. Psychology broke free of philosophy at the end of the nineteenth century, andmathematical logic is doing so today. This midwifery has been invoked (by Russell and Austin, forexample) to explain the poverty of the results of philosophy – namely that once questions aresufficiently sharply formulated to be answerable, they are handed over to an independent science,which then contributes to the extension of human knowledge.
The poverty of philosophy qua cognitive discipline cannot be explained as a consequenceof the fact that once knowledge is achievable the subject becomes a science.
3. ‘Philosophy has only just come of age’
There is another move here, that might, in honour of its recent advocates, be called the WykehamChair gambit. Thirty years ago, Professor Michael Dummett, Wykeham Professor of Logic at theUniversity of Oxford declared that ‘philosophy has only just very recently struggled out of its earlystage into maturity: the turning point was the work of Frege, but the widespread realization of the M. A. E. Dummett, ‘Can analytic philosophy be systematic and ought it to be?’, repr. in Truth and OtherEnigmas (Duckworth, London, 1978), p. 457. Frege died in 1925. Half a century later is 1975, two years after thepublication of Dummett’s, Frege’s Philosophy of Language (Duckworth, London, 1973). T. Williamson, ‘Must Do Better’, in P. Greenough and M. Lynch, eds. Truth and Realism (Oxford
University Press, Oxford, 2005), p. 187.
significance of that work has had to wait for half a century after his death . . . ’
Recently, ProfessorTimothy Williamson, Dummett’s successor but one in the Wykeham Chair of Logic at the Universityof Oxford, declared that we have only now (in 2005) arrived at ‘the end of the beginning’ of philosophy.Well, one can blow the Last Trumpet once, but not once a generation.
When bombarded throughout the ages with incompatible claims about the subject and
unfulfilled promises of how this is going to be set right, the correct move is to challenge the
fundamental assumption that is taken for granted by all participants in the debate, namely the
assumption that philosophy is a cognitive discipline.

4. Philosophy as a quest for understanding rather than knowledge
Philosophy is not a contribution to human knowledge, but to human understanding. It is neither anempirical science nor an a priori one, since it is no science. The difficulty of philosophy does not consist in the difficulty of discovering new, let alone arcane, truths about the world; nor yet inproducing proofs concerning its existence, the existence of recherché ‘entities’ like universals , or ofcommon or garden ‘entities’ like events. It is a quest for understanding, not for knowledge.
Scientists seek to understand why the phenomena they investigate are as they are and behaveas they behave. They do so by way of empirical explanation, which may take various forms, e.g.hypothetico-deductive, inference to the best explanation, or explanation by reference to interveningmechanisms. All these are subject to empirical confirmation or refutation. To that extent it ismisleading to suggest that philosophy seeks not for knowledge of new facts but for an understandingof familiar facts – as if science did not satisfy that need. Philosophy cannot explain phenomena inthat sense at all. So whatever its quest for understanding is, it is not akin to the understandingachieved by the empirical sciences.
The kind of understanding philosophy pursues is distinctive. It can be described in variousmore or less misleading ways:
In the metaphysical mode: philosophy strives for an understanding of the a priori natures of thingsand of internal relations between things (but there are no ‘metaphysical facts’ to be discovered, andinternal relations are creatures of reason, not of nature).
In the conceptual mode: philosophy strives for an overview of the structure of (parts of) our
conceptual scheme and of logico-grammatical relations between its elements (but that does not makeconcepts the special subject matter of philosophy).
In the linguistic mode: philosophy strives for an overview of segments of our language that in oneway or another, give rise to conceptual problems (but philosophy is not in general about language).
5. Philosophy and conceptual investigation
Philosophy is a conceptual investigation. This assertion can easily be misunderstood. Does it meanthat philosophy has a subject matter after all – namely concepts? That would be misleading. Being aconceptual investigation does not mean being solely about concepts. The traditional questions ofwhether an omnipotent, omniscient and benevolent God who created the universe exists, whether wehave an immortal soul, whether we are free, are philosophical.
That philosophy is an a priori investigation does not mean that it is an a priori science.
Mathematics is a priori. But it is not a science after the manner of the natural sciences. It does notdiscover new facts about the realm of numbers and spatial relations as physics or chemistry discovernew facts about the realm of nature The mathematician is an inventor, not a discoverer. What heinvents are new forms of mathematical description. For mathematics is the grammar of number andspace. Its business is concept-formation by means of proof. A proof grafts a new conceptualarticulation onto the body of mathematics.



6. Philosophy and linguistic investigation
Philosophy is a conceptual investigation by means of which philosophical questions are answered, orshown to be confused or incoherent. Philosophy is concerned with questions that require, for their resolution or dissolution, theclarification of concepts and conceptual networks.

7. Philosophical understanding: elaboration and qualification
That philosophy is a quest for understanding, rather than for knowledge, needs elaboration andqualification. It is correct to say that philosophy cannot discover new empirical truths about theworld around us and can offer no theories about it on the model of the theories of the sciences.

8. Can there be progress in philosophy?
If, in the sense explained, philosophy is not a cognitive discipline, can there be said to be progress inphilosophy? Progress characterizes the sciences.
Precisely because philosophy is not a quest for knowledge but for understanding, what itachieves can no more be transmitted from generation to generation than virtue. Philosophicaleducation can show the way to philosophical clarity, just as parents can endeavour to inculcate virtuein their children. But the temptations, both old and new, of illusion, mystification, arid scholasticism,scientism, and bogus precision fostered by logical technology may prove too great, and philosophicalinsight and overview may wane. Each generation has to achieve philosophical understanding foritself, and the insights and clarifications of previous generations have to be gained afresh.
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1. The poverty of philosophy as a science
Throughout its history philosophy has been thought to be a member of a community of intellectualdisciplines united by their common pursuit of knowledge. It has sometimes been thought to be thequeen of the sciences, at other times merely their under-labourer. But irrespective of its social status,it was held to be a participant in the quest for knowledge – a cognitive discipline.
Cognitive disciplines may be a priori or empirical. The distinction between what is a prioriand what is empirical is epistemological. It turns, as Frege noted, on the ultimate justification for holding something to be true. If the truths which a cognitive discipline attains are warranted neitherby observation nor by experiment (nor by inference therefrom), then they are a priori. Otherwise theyare empirical. The natural and moral sciences (the Geisteswissenschaften) strive for and attain empirical knowledge. The mathematical sciences are a priori.
2. Philosophy as the midwife of the sciences
Many questions that were opened by philosophers were subsequently handed over to scientists, forexample questions concerning the constitution of things, the infinity or finitude of the universe, thenature of the stars, the origin of life, the innateness of ideas. Physics, although it continued to beknown as natural philosophy down to the nineteenth century, became independent of philosophy inthe seventeenth. Psychology broke free of philosophy at the end of the nineteenth century, andmathematical logic is doing so today. This midwifery has been invoked (by Russell and Austin, forexample) to explain the poverty of the results of philosophy – namely that once questions aresufficiently sharply formulated to be answerable, they are handed over to an independent science,which then contributes to the extension of human knowledge.
The poverty of philosophy qua cognitive discipline cannot be explained as a consequenceof the fact that once knowledge is achievable the subject becomes a science.
3. ‘Philosophy has only just come of age’
There is another move here, that might, in honour of its recent advocates, be called the WykehamChair gambit. Thirty years ago, Professor Michael Dummett, Wykeham Professor of Logic at theUniversity of Oxford declared that ‘philosophy has only just very recently struggled out of its earlystage into maturity: the turning point was the work of Frege, but the widespread realization of the M. A. E. Dummett, ‘Can analytic philosophy be systematic and ought it to be?’, repr. in Truth and OtherEnigmas (Duckworth, London, 1978), p. 457. Frege died in 1925. Half a century later is 1975, two years after thepublication of Dummett’s, Frege’s Philosophy of Language (Duckworth, London, 1973). T. Williamson, ‘Must Do Better’, in P. Greenough and M. Lynch, eds. Truth and Realism (Oxford
University Press, Oxford, 2005), p. 187.
significance of that work has had to wait for half a century after his death . . . ’
Recently, ProfessorTimothy Williamson, Dummett’s successor but one in the Wykeham Chair of Logic at the Universityof Oxford, declared that we have only now (in 2005) arrived at ‘the end of the beginning’ of philosophy.Well, one can blow the Last Trumpet once, but not once a generation.
When bombarded throughout the ages with incompatible claims about the subject and
unfulfilled promises of how this is going to be set right, the correct move is to challenge the
fundamental assumption that is taken for granted by all participants in the debate, namely the
assumption that philosophy is a cognitive discipline.

4. Philosophy as a quest for understanding rather than knowledge
Philosophy is not a contribution to human knowledge, but to human understanding. It is neither anempirical science nor an a priori one, since it is no science. The difficulty of philosophy does not consist in the difficulty of discovering new, let alone arcane, truths about the world; nor yet inproducing proofs concerning its existence, the existence of recherché ‘entities’ like universals , or ofcommon or garden ‘entities’ like events. It is a quest for understanding, not for knowledge.
Scientists seek to understand why the phenomena they investigate are as they are and behaveas they behave. They do so by way of empirical explanation, which may take various forms, e.g.hypothetico-deductive, inference to the best explanation, or explanation by reference to interveningmechanisms. All these are subject to empirical confirmation or refutation. To that extent it ismisleading to suggest that philosophy seeks not for knowledge of new facts but for an understandingof familiar facts – as if science did not satisfy that need. Philosophy cannot explain phenomena inthat sense at all. So whatever its quest for understanding is, it is not akin to the understandingachieved by the empirical sciences.
The kind of understanding philosophy pursues is distinctive. It can be described in variousmore or less misleading ways:
In the metaphysical mode: philosophy strives for an understanding of the a priori natures of thingsand of internal relations between things (but there are no ‘metaphysical facts’ to be discovered, andinternal relations are creatures of reason, not of nature).
In the conceptual mode: philosophy strives for an overview of the structure of (parts of) our
conceptual scheme and of logico-grammatical relations between its elements (but that does not makeconcepts the special subject matter of philosophy).
In the linguistic mode: philosophy strives for an overview of segments of our language that in oneway or another, give rise to conceptual problems (but philosophy is not in general about language).
5. Philosophy and conceptual investigation
Philosophy is a conceptual investigation. This assertion can easily be misunderstood. Does it meanthat philosophy has a subject matter after all – namely concepts? That would be misleading. Being aconceptual investigation does not mean being solely about concepts. The traditional questions ofwhether an omnipotent, omniscient and benevolent God who created the universe exists, whether wehave an immortal soul, whether we are free, are philosophical.
That philosophy is an a priori investigation does not mean that it is an a priori science.
Mathematics is a priori. But it is not a science after the manner of the natural sciences. It does notdiscover new facts about the realm of numbers and spatial relations as physics or chemistry discovernew facts about the realm of nature The mathematician is an inventor, not a discoverer. What heinvents are new forms of mathematical description. For mathematics is the grammar of number andspace. Its business is concept-formation by means of proof. A proof grafts a new conceptualarticulation onto the body of mathematics.



6. Philosophy and linguistic investigation
Philosophy is a conceptual investigation by means of which philosophical questions are answered, orshown to be confused or incoherent. Philosophy is concerned with questions that require, for their resolution or dissolution, theclarification of concepts and conceptual networks.

7. Philosophical understanding: elaboration and qualification
That philosophy is a quest for understanding, rather than for knowledge, needs elaboration andqualification. It is correct to say that philosophy cannot discover new empirical truths about theworld around us and can offer no theories about it on the model of the theories of the sciences.

8. Can there be progress in philosophy?
If, in the sense explained, philosophy is not a cognitive discipline, can there be said to be progress inphilosophy? Progress characterizes the sciences.
Precisely because philosophy is not a quest for knowledge but for understanding, what itachieves can no more be transmitted from generation to generation than virtue. Philosophicaleducation can show the way to philosophical clarity, just as parents can endeavour to inculcate virtuein their children. But the temptations, both old and new, of illusion, mystification, arid scholasticism,scientism, and bogus precision fostered by logical technology may prove too great, and philosophicalinsight and overview may wane. Each generation has to achieve philosophical understanding foritself, and the insights and clarifications of previous generations have to be gained afresh.
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1. Kemiskinan filsafat sebagai ilmu
filsafat Sepanjang sejarahnya telah dianggap sebagai anggota dari komunitas intellectualdisciplines disatukan oleh pengejaran bersama mereka pengetahuan. Ini kadang-kadang dianggap thequeen ilmu, di lain waktu hanya mereka di bawah-buruh. Tapi terlepas dari status sosial, itu diadakan untuk menjadi peserta dalam upaya untuk pengetahuan -. Disiplin kognitif
disiplin kognitif mungkin apriori atau empiris. Perbedaan antara apa yang prioriand yang apa yang empiris epistemologis. Ternyata, seperti Frege mencatat, pada pembenaran utama untuk memegang sesuatu untuk menjadi kenyataan. Jika kebenaran mana mencapai disiplin kognitif dijamin pengamatan neitherby atau eksperimen (atau dengan kesimpulan darinya), maka mereka apriori. Jika tidak theyare empiris. Ilmu alam dan moral (yang Geisteswissenschaften) berusaha untuk mencapai dan pengetahuan empiris. Ilmu matematika yang apriori.
2. Filsafat sebagai bidan ilmu-ilmu
Banyak pertanyaan yang dibuka oleh filsuf yang kemudian diserahkan kepada para ilmuwan, forexample pertanyaan mengenai konstitusi hal, infinity atau keterbatasan alam semesta, thenature dari bintang-bintang, asal usul kehidupan, yang pembawaan sejak lahir dari ide. Fisika, meskipun terus beknown sebagai filsafat alam ke abad kesembilan belas, menjadi independen dari filsafat inthe ketujuh belas. Psikologi melepaskan diri dari filsafat pada akhir abad kesembilan belas, logika andmathematical adalah melakukannya hari ini. Kebidanan ini telah dipanggil (oleh Russell dan Austin, forexample) untuk menjelaskan kemiskinan hasil filsafat - yaitu bahwa sekali pertanyaan aresufficiently dirumuskan tajam untuk bisa mempertanggungjawabkan, mereka diserahkan kepada ilmu yang mandiri, yang kemudian berkontribusi pada perluasan pengetahuan manusia.
Kemiskinan disiplin kognitif filsafat qua tidak dapat dijelaskan sebagai suatu consequenceof fakta bahwa sekali pengetahuan dicapai subjek menjadi ilmu.
3. 'Filsafat baru saja datang dari usia'
Ada langkah lain di sini, yang mungkin, untuk menghormati pendukung baru-baru ini, disebut gambit WykehamChair. Tiga puluh tahun yang lalu, Profesor Michael Dummett, Wykeham Profesor Logika di theUniversity dari Oxford menyatakan bahwa 'filsafat baru saja baru-baru ini berjuang keluar dari earlystage ke dalam jatuh tempo: titik balik adalah karya Frege, tetapi realisasi luas dari MAE Dummett , 'Bisa analitik filsafat sistematis dan harus untuk menjadi? ", Repr. di Kebenaran dan OtherEnigmas (Duckworth, London, 1978), hlm. 457. Frege meninggal pada 1925. Setengah abad kemudian adalah 1975, dua tahun setelah thepublication dari Dummett itu, Frege Filsafat Bahasa (Duckworth, London, 1973). T. Williamson, 'Harus Lakukan Lebih Baik', di P. Greenough dan M. Lynch, eds. Kebenaran dan Realisme (Oxford
University Press, Oxford, 2005), hal. 187.
pentingnya pekerjaan yang telah menunggu selama setengah abad setelah kematiannya. . . "
Baru-baru ini, ProfessorTimothy Williamson, penerus Dummett tapi satu di Wykeham Ketua Logika di Universityof Oxford, menyatakan bahwa kita hanya sekarang (tahun 2005) tiba di 'akhir awal' dari philosophy.Well, seseorang dapat meniup terakhir Trumpet sekali, tapi tidak sekali generasi.
Ketika dibombardir sepanjang zaman dengan klaim yang tidak kompatibel tentang subjek dan
janji-janji yang tak terpenuhi tentang bagaimana hal ini akan diatur tepat, langkah yang benar adalah untuk menantang
asumsi dasar yang diambil untuk diberikan oleh semua peserta dalam perdebatan, yaitu
asumsi bahwa filsafat adalah disiplin kognitif. 4. Filsafat sebagai pencarian pengertian ketimbang pengetahuan Filsafat bukanlah kontribusi terhadap pengetahuan manusia, tetapi untuk pemahaman manusia. Hal ini tidak ilmu anempirical atau satu apriori, karena ada ilmu. Kesulitan filsafat tidak terdiri dalam kesulitan menemukan yang baru, apalagi misterius, kebenaran tentang dunia; atau belum inproducing bukti tentang keberadaannya, keberadaan universal seperti recherché 'entitas', atau ofcommon atau 'entitas' taman seperti peristiwa. Ini adalah pencarian untuk memahami, bukan untuk pengetahuan. Para ilmuwan berusaha untuk memahami mengapa fenomena mereka menyelidiki adalah sebagai mereka dan behaveas mereka berperilaku. Mereka melakukannya dengan cara penjelasan empiris, yang mungkin memakan berbagai bentuk, eghypothetico-deduktif, kesimpulan untuk penjelasan terbaik, atau penjelasan dengan mengacu interveningmechanisms. Semua ini tunduk pada konfirmasi empiris atau sanggahan. Untuk transaksi yang ismisleading menyarankan filsafat yang berusaha bukan untuk pengetahuan tentang fakta-fakta baru tapi untuk understandingof fakta akrab - seakan ilmu tidak memenuhi kebutuhan itu. Filsafat tidak bisa menjelaskan fenomena inthat akal sama sekali. Jadi, apa pun upaya untuk memahami adalah, tidak mirip dengan understandingachieved oleh ilmu-ilmu empiris. Jenis memahami filsafat mengejar khas. Hal ini dapat dijelaskan dalam variousmore atau cara yang kurang menyesatkan: Dalam modus metafisik: filsafat berusaha untuk memahami apriori kodrat thingsand hubungan internal antara hal-hal (tapi tidak ada 'fakta metafisik' untuk ditemukan, hubungan andinternal adalah makhluk alasan, bukan dari alam). Dalam modus konseptual: filsafat berusaha untuk gambaran struktur (bagian dari) kami skema konseptual dan hubungan logico-gramatikal antara unsur-unsurnya (tapi itu tidak makeconcepts materi pelajaran khusus filsafat ). Dalam modus linguistik: filsafat berusaha untuk gambaran segmen bahasa kita bahwa dalam oneway atau lain, menimbulkan masalah konseptual (tapi filsafat tidak secara umum tentang bahasa). 5. Filsafat dan investigasi konseptual Filsafat adalah penyelidikan konseptual. Pernyataan ini dapat dengan mudah disalahpahami. Apakah itu filsafat meanthat memiliki subjek masalah setelah semua - yaitu konsep? Itu akan menyesatkan. Menjadi penyelidikan aconceptual bukan berarti menjadi semata-mata tentang konsep. Pertanyaan-pertanyaan tradisional ofwhether mahakuasa, mahatahu dan baik hati Tuhan yang menciptakan alam semesta ada, apakah wehave jiwa abadi, apakah kita bebas, yang filosofis. Itulah filosofi investigasi apriori tidak berarti bahwa itu adalah ilmu apriori. Matematika adalah apriori. Tapi itu bukanlah ilmu menurut cara ilmu alam. Itu tidak notdiscover fakta baru tentang bidang angka dan hubungan spasial seperti fisika atau kimia fakta discovernew tentang dunia alam matematika adalah seorang penemu, bukan penemu. Heinvents apa bentuk-bentuk baru dari deskripsi matematis. Untuk matematika adalah tata bahasa nomor andspace. Bisnisnya adalah konsep formasi dengan alat bukti. Sebuah bukti cangkok sebuah conceptualarticulation baru ke tubuh matematika. 6. Filsafat dan investigasi linguistik Filsafat adalah penyelidikan konseptual dengan cara yang pertanyaan filosofis yang menjawab, orshown menjadi bingung atau tidak koheren. Filsafat berkaitan dengan pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang membutuhkan, untuk resolusi atau pembubaran, theclarification konsep dan jaringan konseptual. 7. Filosofis pengertian: elaborasi dan kualifikasi Bahwa filsafat adalah pencarian pemahaman, bukan untuk pengetahuan, kebutuhan elaborasi andqualification. Hal ini benar untuk mengatakan bahwa filsafat tidak dapat menemukan kebenaran empiris baru tentang theworld di sekitar kita dan dapat menawarkan tidak ada teori tentang hal itu pada model teori ilmu. 8. Bisa ada kemajuan dalam filsafat? Jika, dalam arti menjelaskan, filsafat tidak disiplin kognitif, dapat ada dikatakan kemajuan inphilosophy? Kemajuan ciri ilmu. Justru karena filsafat bukanlah sebuah pencarian untuk pengetahuan tetapi untuk memahami, apa yang itachieves bisa lagi ditularkan dari generasi ke generasi dari kebajikan. Philosophicaleducation dapat menunjukkan cara untuk kejelasan filosofis, seperti orang tua dapat berusaha untuk menanamkan virtuein anak-anak mereka. Tapi godaan, baik lama dan baru, ilusi, mistifikasi, skolastik kering, saintisme, dan presisi palsu dipupuk oleh teknologi logis dapat membuktikan terlalu besar, dan philosophicalinsight dan ikhtisar mungkin berkurang. Setiap generasi memiliki untuk mencapai pemahaman filosofis foritself, dan wawasan dan klarifikasi dari generasi sebelumnya harus diperoleh lagi.

























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