Dreaming is an overwhelmingly visua

Dreaming is an overwhelmingly visual experience for sighted people. About half of all dreams also have auditory sensations, but in two large-scale studies less than one percent had gustatory, olfactory, or tactual sensory references (Snyder, 1970; Zadra, Nielsen, & Donderi, 1998). Kerr (1993) suggests that the extremely visual nature of dreams may be why many people wonder if blind people even dream. This wonderment may explain why the presence or absence of visual imagery in the dreams of the blind has been of scientific interest since the early nineteenth century. A series of questionnaire and interview studies since that time have led to four empirical generalizations (Kirtley, 1975):
1. There are no visual images in the dreams of those born without any ability to experience visual imagery in waking life.
2. Individuals who become blind before the age of five seldom experience visual imagery in their dreams, although Deutsch (1928) reports some visual imagery in six schoolchildren who lost their sight before age five.
3. Those who become sightless between the ages of five and seven may or may not retain some visual imagery.
4. Most people who lost their vision after age seven continue to experience at least some visual imagery, although its frequency and clarity often fade with time.
Studies of blind participants in sleep laboratories using awakenings during REM periods to collect dream reports have shown results similar to the questionnaire and interview studies (e.g., Amadeo & Gomez, 1966; Berger, Olley, & Oswald, 1962; Kerr, Foulkes, & Schmidt, 1982).
The substantive content in the dream reports of the blind has received less attention than the presence or absence of visual imagery. However, Kerr, Foulkes, and Schmidt (1982) found few differences among four congenitally blind, two adventitiously blind, and four sighted subjects between the ages of 19 and 32 with 16 REM and 10 NREM awakenings per subject over a period of eight weeks. This conclusion is based on ratings by the subjects themselves on 22 dimensions of the dream reports.
Studies by Kirtley (1975) and Kirtley and Sabo (1983, 1984), using dream journals from blind participants ranging in age from 20 to 56, generally found few differences from sighted subjects in their social interactions in dreams when compared to the Hall/Van de Castle norms, except that women were below the norms on two aggression indicators and above the norms on a friendly interactions indicator. However, the results from their content analyses have to be treated with caution because the various group comparisons did not control for the fact that some participants contributed as many as 39 dreams and some as few as 10.
The main purpose of the present study is to attempt to replicate the findings on sensory references and substantive dream content reviewed in the previous paragraphs. The paper also has two subsidiary purposes. First, it presents evidence that verbs of perception, such as "see" and "look," are used metaphorically by the blind in their dream reports in the same way they are used by sighted subjects (Matlock, 1988; Matlock & Sweetser, 1989; Sweetser, 1990). Second, it presents evidence to suggest that one of the primary waking concerns of the blind, traveling from place to place, may manifest itself in dreams through a higher percentage of locomotion/transportation dreams with a misfortune in them than is found for such dreams in the Hall/Van de Castle norms (Hurovitz, 1997).

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

Dreaming is an overwhelmingly visual experience for sighted people. About half of all dreams also have auditory sensations, but in two large-scale studies less than one percent had gustatory, olfactory, or tactual sensory references (Snyder, 1970; Zadra, Nielsen, & Donderi, 1998). Kerr (1993) suggests that the extremely visual nature of dreams may be why many people wonder if blind people even dream. This wonderment may explain why the presence or absence of visual imagery in the dreams of the blind has been of scientific interest since the early nineteenth century. A series of questionnaire and interview studies since that time have led to four empirical generalizations (Kirtley, 1975):1. There are no visual images in the dreams of those born without any ability to experience visual imagery in waking life.2. Individuals who become blind before the age of five seldom experience visual imagery in their dreams, although Deutsch (1928) reports some visual imagery in six schoolchildren who lost their sight before age five.3. Those who become sightless between the ages of five and seven may or may not retain some visual imagery.4. Most people who lost their vision after age seven continue to experience at least some visual imagery, although its frequency and clarity often fade with time.Studies of blind participants in sleep laboratories using awakenings during REM periods to collect dream reports have shown results similar to the questionnaire and interview studies (e.g., Amadeo & Gomez, 1966; Berger, Olley, & Oswald, 1962; Kerr, Foulkes, & Schmidt, 1982).The substantive content in the dream reports of the blind has received less attention than the presence or absence of visual imagery. However, Kerr, Foulkes, and Schmidt (1982) found few differences among four congenitally blind, two adventitiously blind, and four sighted subjects between the ages of 19 and 32 with 16 REM and 10 NREM awakenings per subject over a period of eight weeks. This conclusion is based on ratings by the subjects themselves on 22 dimensions of the dream reports.Studies by Kirtley (1975) and Kirtley and Sabo (1983, 1984), using dream journals from blind participants ranging in age from 20 to 56, generally found few differences from sighted subjects in their social interactions in dreams when compared to the Hall/Van de Castle norms, except that women were below the norms on two aggression indicators and above the norms on a friendly interactions indicator. However, the results from their content analyses have to be treated with caution because the various group comparisons did not control for the fact that some participants contributed as many as 39 dreams and some as few as 10.Tujuan utama dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mencoba untuk meniru hasil temuan pada referensi sensorik dan mimpi substantif konten dibahas dalam ayat-ayat terdahulu. Karya ini juga memiliki dua anak perusahaan tujuan. Pertama, menyajikan bukti bahwa kata persepsi, seperti "Lihat" dan "Lihat," yang digunakan kiasan oleh orang buta dalam laporan impian mereka dengan cara yang sama mereka digunakan oleh subyek terlihat (Matlock, 1988; Matlock & Sweetser, 1989; Sweetser, 1990). Kedua, ini menyajikan bukti yang menunjukkan bahwa salah satu fokus utama bangun orang buta, yang bepergian dari satu tempat ke tempat, mungkin memanifestasikan dirinya dalam mimpi-mimpi melalui persentase lebih tinggi dari penggerak transportasi mimpi dengan sebuah kemalangan di dalamnya daripada yang ditemukan untuk mimpi seperti dalam norma-norma Hall Van de Castle (Hurovitz, 1997).