each phoneme. Morphology and syntax involved the ordering of phonemes  terjemahan - each phoneme. Morphology and syntax involved the ordering of phonemes  Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

each phoneme. Morphology and syntax

each phoneme. Morphology and syntax involved the ordering of phonemes into
meaningful forms and of combinations of forms into words and words into phrases,
clauses, and sentences. To describe all of this was to make what in current jargon
would be called an emic description of a language.
This set me to thinking about social behavior. In every human society people
must learn how to conduct themselves in ways that are acceptable to their fellows.
People articulate what must be learned as rules of conduct and lists of “dos and
don’ts.” But much of what they learn remains subjective. They cannot explain to
someone else the working principles for which they come to have a feel any more
than they can explain to others the working principles of their language’s grammar.
They can apply their subjective knowledge to correct people in specific situations,
but they cannot explain the underlying understanding by which they make their
immediate judgments.
Learning how to behave, it seemed to me, must be much like learning how
to speak. For culturally appropriate behavior to be readily learnable, its content
had to be reducible to organizational principles analogous to those of a language’s
grammar. I presumed, therefore, that the methodological strategy of descriptive
linguistics should be applicable to getting at those underlying principles. So I
proposed as my doctoral dissertation project an exploration into the possibility of
formulating a “grammar of social behavior” while doing ethnographic fieldwork.
While at Yale, I had the opportunity to study under Bronislaw Malinowski in
1940–1941 and, on my return to Yale after World War II, under Ralph Linton in
1946–1947. I took courses also from G.P. Murdock, Clellan Ford, John Dollard,
and Cornelius Osgood and archaeology courses from Irving Rouse and Wendell
Bennett. From November 1941 to December 1945, I served in the Army, where I
had the good fortune to work for three years doing attitude and opinion research
in the Research Branch of the Army’s Information and Education Division, un-
der the sociologists Samuel Stouffer and Leonard S. Cottrell, Jr. There I learned
about sampling and questionnaire survey methods, and, most importantly for me,
I learned Guttman scaling, which led to my first publication (Goodenough 1944).
My dissertation fieldwork was done in 1947 in Chuuk (formerly Truk) in
Micronesia. I was part of a team that went there under the National Research
Council program called the Coordinated Investigation of Micronesian Anthropol-
ogy (CIMA), funded by the Office of Naval Research. Our team, led by Murdock,
also included Isidore Dyen, as linguist, and fellow graduate students Thomas
Gladwin and Frank LeBar. Under our division of labor, LeBar (1964) worked on
the traditional material culture, Gladwin on the life cycle, life histories, and person-
ality and culture (Gladwin & Sarason 1953), while I was assigned social behavior
and religion. Murdock took on social organization, but he had me working with
him because he was having trouble with the Chuukese language and I was making
good progress in it. I learned a great deal about fieldwork from him in the process.
After he left, I continued working on social organization as well as my other topics
(Goodenough 1951).
In accordance with my linguistic (emic) methodological approach, I found that
study of the traditional property system required learning what one needed to know
to do a search of title in the system. This required knowing the different kinds of
entitlements individuals and corporate groups could have, the transactions that
could occur with these entitlements, and the new entitlements that could result
from the different possible transactions. It also required knowing what were the
rights and duties associated with each of these entitlements. As far as I know,
the resulting ethnography stands almost alone as an account of how a property
system is culturally constructed and actually works (Goodenough 1951). My emic
approach led me also to try to learn what were the choices that the Chuukese saw
Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2003.32:1-12. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Access provided by 202.67.43.39 on 07/03/15. For personal use only.
9 Aug 2003 18:52 AR AR196-AN32-01.tex AR196-AN32-01.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
P1: GCE
4
GOODENOUGH
available to them in making decisions about marital residence. These choices could
be mapped into the standard anthropological (etic) categories, but these categories
did not describe their choices. Similar experience in fieldwork in Kiribati and New
Britain led me to formulate the need for emic description in doing ethnography
and at the same time attend to how the emic formulations could be mapped into
the etic concepts needed for comparative, cross-cultural research (Goodenough
1956a). Some years later these considerations led me to examine anthropology’s
etic concepts in relation to marriage, family, kin groups, and kinship terminology
with the object of refining them for comparative purposes (Goodenough 1970a).
Writing my ethnographic account of Chuuk’s social organization, I encountered
a problem involving the order in which things were to be described. To describe kin
groups seemed to require describing property first, but describing property seemed
to require describing kin groups first. The problem resolved itself when I saw that
both entitlements and kin groups depended on property transactions. Describing
transaction first made it possible to treat entitlements and kin groups as emergent
forms resulting from previous transactions. An orderly, linear rather than circular
account of social organization thus became possible. From this I learned that
customs and institutions were not only largely interconnected and to be understood
in terms of one another, as Malinowski (1922) demonstrated long ago, but also that
the understanding of some was dependent on the understanding of others. Finding
the logical starting points for orderly description of interconnected cultural systems
was something requiring attention for an emic ethnographic account (Goodenough
1951).
With an eye to my premise about underlying principles specific to a partic-
ular culture’s ordering of social relationships, I was able to come up with two
empirically based examples from my fieldwork in Truk in 1947. One of these ex-
amples involved the application of contrastive analysis to the sets of genealogical
relationships that were designated by the same kinship terms to arrive at a set of
cross-cutting criteria that allowed me to use every kinship term correctly by in-
formants’ standards in every relationship to which the term denotatively applied.
Having the genealogical connections among all the community’s members already
recorded, I went through the roster of the community’s members and listed for one
0/5000
Dari: -
Ke: -
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1: [Salinan]
Disalin!
each phoneme. Morphology and syntax involved the ordering of phonemes intomeaningful forms and of combinations of forms into words and words into phrases,clauses, and sentences. To describe all of this was to make what in current jargonwould be called an emic description of a language.This set me to thinking about social behavior. In every human society peoplemust learn how to conduct themselves in ways that are acceptable to their fellows.People articulate what must be learned as rules of conduct and lists of “dos anddon’ts.” But much of what they learn remains subjective. They cannot explain tosomeone else the working principles for which they come to have a feel any morethan they can explain to others the working principles of their language’s grammar.They can apply their subjective knowledge to correct people in specific situations,but they cannot explain the underlying understanding by which they make theirimmediate judgments.Learning how to behave, it seemed to me, must be much like learning howto speak. For culturally appropriate behavior to be readily learnable, its contenthad to be reducible to organizational principles analogous to those of a language’sgrammar. I presumed, therefore, that the methodological strategy of descriptivelinguistics should be applicable to getting at those underlying principles. So Iproposed as my doctoral dissertation project an exploration into the possibility offormulating a “grammar of social behavior” while doing ethnographic fieldwork.
While at Yale, I had the opportunity to study under Bronislaw Malinowski in
1940–1941 and, on my return to Yale after World War II, under Ralph Linton in
1946–1947. I took courses also from G.P. Murdock, Clellan Ford, John Dollard,
and Cornelius Osgood and archaeology courses from Irving Rouse and Wendell
Bennett. From November 1941 to December 1945, I served in the Army, where I
had the good fortune to work for three years doing attitude and opinion research
in the Research Branch of the Army’s Information and Education Division, un-
der the sociologists Samuel Stouffer and Leonard S. Cottrell, Jr. There I learned
about sampling and questionnaire survey methods, and, most importantly for me,
I learned Guttman scaling, which led to my first publication (Goodenough 1944).
My dissertation fieldwork was done in 1947 in Chuuk (formerly Truk) in
Micronesia. I was part of a team that went there under the National Research
Council program called the Coordinated Investigation of Micronesian Anthropol-
ogy (CIMA), funded by the Office of Naval Research. Our team, led by Murdock,
also included Isidore Dyen, as linguist, and fellow graduate students Thomas
Gladwin and Frank LeBar. Under our division of labor, LeBar (1964) worked on
the traditional material culture, Gladwin on the life cycle, life histories, and person-
ality and culture (Gladwin & Sarason 1953), while I was assigned social behavior
and religion. Murdock took on social organization, but he had me working with
him because he was having trouble with the Chuukese language and I was making
good progress in it. I learned a great deal about fieldwork from him in the process.
After he left, I continued working on social organization as well as my other topics
(Goodenough 1951).
In accordance with my linguistic (emic) methodological approach, I found that
study of the traditional property system required learning what one needed to know
to do a search of title in the system. This required knowing the different kinds of
entitlements individuals and corporate groups could have, the transactions that
could occur with these entitlements, and the new entitlements that could result
from the different possible transactions. It also required knowing what were the
rights and duties associated with each of these entitlements. As far as I know,
the resulting ethnography stands almost alone as an account of how a property
system is culturally constructed and actually works (Goodenough 1951). My emic
approach led me also to try to learn what were the choices that the Chuukese saw
Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2003.32:1-12. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Access provided by 202.67.43.39 on 07/03/15. For personal use only.
9 Aug 2003 18:52 AR AR196-AN32-01.tex AR196-AN32-01.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
P1: GCE
4
GOODENOUGH
available to them in making decisions about marital residence. These choices could
be mapped into the standard anthropological (etic) categories, but these categories
did not describe their choices. Similar experience in fieldwork in Kiribati and New
Britain led me to formulate the need for emic description in doing ethnography
and at the same time attend to how the emic formulations could be mapped into
the etic concepts needed for comparative, cross-cultural research (Goodenough
1956a). Some years later these considerations led me to examine anthropology’s
etic concepts in relation to marriage, family, kin groups, and kinship terminology
with the object of refining them for comparative purposes (Goodenough 1970a).
Writing my ethnographic account of Chuuk’s social organization, I encountered
a problem involving the order in which things were to be described. To describe kin
groups seemed to require describing property first, but describing property seemed
to require describing kin groups first. The problem resolved itself when I saw that
both entitlements and kin groups depended on property transactions. Describing
transaction first made it possible to treat entitlements and kin groups as emergent
forms resulting from previous transactions. An orderly, linear rather than circular
account of social organization thus became possible. From this I learned that
customs and institutions were not only largely interconnected and to be understood
in terms of one another, as Malinowski (1922) demonstrated long ago, but also that
the understanding of some was dependent on the understanding of others. Finding
the logical starting points for orderly description of interconnected cultural systems
was something requiring attention for an emic ethnographic account (Goodenough
1951).
With an eye to my premise about underlying principles specific to a partic-
ular culture’s ordering of social relationships, I was able to come up with two
empirically based examples from my fieldwork in Truk in 1947. One of these ex-
amples involved the application of contrastive analysis to the sets of genealogical
relationships that were designated by the same kinship terms to arrive at a set of
cross-cutting criteria that allowed me to use every kinship term correctly by in-
formants’ standards in every relationship to which the term denotatively applied.
Having the genealogical connections among all the community’s members already
recorded, I went through the roster of the community’s members and listed for one
Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:[Salinan]
Disalin!
setiap fonem. Morfologi dan sintaksis yang terlibat pemesanan fonem ke dalam
bentuk yang berarti dan kombinasi dari bentuk kata-kata dan kata-kata menjadi frase,
klausa, dan kalimat. Untuk menggambarkan semua ini adalah untuk membuat apa yang dalam jargon saat
akan disebut deskripsi emic dari bahasa.
Hal ini membuat saya untuk berpikir tentang perilaku sosial. Dalam setiap masyarakat manusia orang
harus belajar bagaimana melakukan sendiri dengan cara-cara yang dapat diterima untuk rekan-rekan mereka.
Orang-orang mengartikulasikan apa yang harus dipelajari sebagai aturan perilaku dan daftar "dos dan
tidak boleh dilakukan." Tapi banyak dari apa yang mereka pelajari tetap subjektif. Mereka tidak bisa menjelaskan kepada
orang lain prinsip-prinsip kerja yang mereka datang untuk memiliki merasa lebih
dari yang mereka bisa menjelaskan kepada orang lain prinsip kerja tata bahasa mereka.
Mereka dapat menerapkan pengetahuan subjektif mereka untuk memperbaiki orang dalam situasi tertentu,
tetapi mereka tidak bisa menjelaskan pemahaman yang mendasari dimana mereka membuat mereka
penilaian langsung.
Belajar bagaimana berperilaku, tampaknya bagi saya, harus jauh seperti belajar bagaimana
untuk berbicara. Untuk perilaku yang sesuai dengan budaya menjadi mudah dipelajari, isinya
harus direduksi menjadi prinsip-prinsip organisasi analog dengan orang-orang dari bahasa yang
tata bahasa. Saya dianggap, oleh karena itu, bahwa strategi metodologis deskriptif
linguistik harus berlaku untuk mendapatkan prinsip-prinsip tersebut di mendasarinya. Jadi saya
diusulkan sebagai proyek disertasi doktor saya eksplorasi ke dalam kemungkinan
merumuskan "tata bahasa dari perilaku sosial" saat melakukan kerja lapangan etnografi.
Sementara di Yale, saya memiliki kesempatan untuk belajar di bawah Bronislaw Malinowski di
1940-1941 dan, saya kembali ke Yale setelah Perang Dunia II, di bawah Ralph Linton di
1946-1947. Saya mengambil kursus juga dari GP Murdock, Clellan Ford, John Dollard,
dan Cornelius Osgood dan kursus arkeologi dari Irving Rouse dan Wendell
Bennett. Dari November 1941 sampai Desember 1945, saya bertugas di Angkatan Darat, di mana saya
memiliki nasib baik untuk bekerja selama tiga tahun melakukan sikap dan riset opini
di Cabang Riset Informasi dan Pendidikan Divisi Angkatan Darat, UN
der sosiolog Samuel Stouffer dan Leonard S. Cottrell, Jr. Ada saya belajar
tentang pengambilan sampel dan survei kuesioner metode, dan, yang paling penting bagi saya,
saya belajar Guttman scaling, yang menyebabkan publikasi pertama saya (Goodenough 1944).
Saya disertasi lapangan dilakukan pada tahun 1947 di Chuuk (sebelumnya Truk) di
Mikronesia. Aku adalah bagian dari sebuah tim yang pergi ke sana di bawah National Research
Program Dewan disebut Coordinated Investigasi Mikronesia Anthropol-
ogy (CIMA), yang didanai oleh Office of Naval Research. Tim kami, dipimpin oleh Murdock,
juga termasuk Isidore Dyen, sebagai ahli bahasa, dan sesama mahasiswa pascasarjana Thomas
Gladwin dan Frank LeBar. Di bawah divisi kami kerja, LeBar (1964) bekerja pada
budaya materi tradisional, Gladwin pada siklus hidup, sejarah kehidupan, dan PribadiNya-
ality dan budaya (Gladwin & Sarason 1953), sementara saya ditugaskan perilaku sosial
dan agama. Murdock mengambil organisasi sosial, tetapi ia telah saya bekerja dengan
dia karena ia mengalami kesulitan dengan bahasa Chuukese dan saya membuat
kemajuan yang baik di dalamnya. Saya belajar banyak tentang kerja lapangan dari dia dalam proses.
Setelah dia pergi, saya terus bekerja di organisasi sosial serta topik lain saya
(Goodenough 1951).
Sesuai dengan linguistik (emic) pendekatan metodologi saya, saya menemukan bahwa
studi sistem properti tradisional diperlukan belajar apa yang perlu tahu
untuk melakukan pencarian judul dalam sistem. Ini diperlukan untuk mengetahui berbagai jenis
hak individu dan kelompok perusahaan bisa memiliki, transaksi yang
dapat terjadi dengan hak-hak ini, dan hak baru yang dapat mengakibatkan
dari transaksi yang berbeda mungkin. Hal ini juga diperlukan untuk mengetahui apa yang menjadi
hak dan kewajiban yang terkait dengan masing-masing hak-hak ini. Sejauh yang saya tahu,
etnografi yang dihasilkan berdiri hampir saja sebagai account bagaimana properti
sistem kultural dan benar-benar bekerja (Goodenough 1951). Emic saya
pendekatan menyebabkan saya juga mencoba untuk mempelajari apa adalah pilihan yang Chuukese melihat
Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2.003,32: 1-12. Download dari www.annualreviews.org
Access disediakan oleh 202.67.43.39 pada 07/03/15. Untuk penggunaan pribadi saja.
9 Agustus 2003 18:52 AR AR196-AN32-01.tex AR196-AN32-01.sgm LaTeX2e (2002/01/18)
P1: GCE
4
Goodenough
tersedia untuk mereka dalam membuat keputusan tentang kediaman perkawinan. Pilihan ini bisa
dipetakan ke dalam antropologi (etik) kategori standar, tetapi kategori ini
tidak menjelaskan pilihan mereka. Pengalaman serupa di lapangan di Kiribati dan New
Britain membawa saya untuk merumuskan kebutuhan untuk deskripsi emic dalam melakukan etnografi
dan pada saat yang sama hadir untuk bagaimana formulasi emic dapat dipetakan ke dalam
konsep yang etik diperlukan untuk penelitian komparatif, lintas-budaya (Goodenough
1956a ). Beberapa tahun kemudian pertimbangan ini membawa saya untuk menguji antropologi
konsep etik dalam kaitannya dengan pernikahan, keluarga, kelompok kerabat, dan terminologi kekerabatan
dengan obyek menyempurnakan mereka untuk tujuan perbandingan (Goodenough 1970a).
Menulis akun etnografis saya organisasi sosial Chuuk, saya temui
masalah yang melibatkan urutan hal-hal yang harus dijelaskan. Untuk menggambarkan kerabat
kelompok tampaknya memerlukan menggambarkan properti pertama, tetapi menggambarkan properti tampaknya
memerlukan menggambarkan kelompok kerabat pertama. Masalah diselesaikan sendiri ketika saya melihat bahwa
kedua hak dan kelompok kerabat bergantung pada transaksi properti. Menggambarkan
transaksi pertama memungkinkan untuk mengobati hak dan kelompok kerabat sebagai muncul
bentuk-bentuk yang dihasilkan dari transaksi sebelumnya. Tertib, linear daripada melingkar
akun organisasi sosial sehingga menjadi mungkin. Dari ini saya belajar bahwa
adat istiadat dan lembaga yang tidak hanya sebagian besar saling berhubungan dan harus dipahami
dalam hal satu sama lain, sebagai Malinowski (1922) menunjukkan lama, tetapi juga bahwa
pemahaman beberapa tergantung pada pemahaman orang lain. Menemukan
titik awal yang logis untuk deskripsi tertib sistem budaya yang saling berhubungan
adalah sesuatu yang membutuhkan perhatian untuk akun etnografi emic (Goodenough
1951).
Dengan mata untuk premis saya tentang prinsip-prinsip dasar khusus untuk tertentu-
pemesanan budaya ular itu dari hubungan sosial, saya bisa untuk datang dengan dua
contoh berdasarkan empiris dari penelitian lapangan saya di Truk pada tahun 1947. Salah satunya mantan
amples melibatkan penerapan analisis kontrastif ke set silsilah
hubungan yang ditunjuk oleh istilah kekerabatan yang sama untuk sampai pada satu set
lintas pemotongan kriteria yang memungkinkan saya untuk menggunakan setiap istilah kekerabatan dengan benar oleh in-
standar forman 'dalam setiap hubungan yang istilah harfiah tetapi diterapkan.
Memiliki hubungan silsilah antara semua anggota masyarakat sudah
direkam, aku pergi melalui daftar anggota masyarakat dan terdaftar untuk satu
Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
 
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