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Economic instruments have the advan

Economic instruments have the advantage that they can influence the direction and pattern of development of human settlements and industries without unduly constraining the pace of development. The rapidity with which urban and industrial centers are growing in developing countries provides economic instruments with the opportunity to achieve cost-effective environmental improvements through structural change, an opportunity that flees with every new investment planned and implemented under existing policies. A related characteristic of developing countries is the large number of scattered, small-scale industries which are difficult to either regulate or tax. Product taxes, refundable deposits, and incentives for waste delivery are clearly preferable to effluent standards and charges or to market creation instruments which are costly to monitor and enforce when a large number of small and scattered polluters are involved.4 Rapidly growing vehicular pollution and traffic congestion, as a result of increasing car ownership, are other characteristics of developing countries that the selected instruments must address cost effectively. Car ownership taxes, differential fuel taxes, and road tolls are among such instruments, provided that alternative means of transport (e.g., mass transit systems) are available.
Conclusion
Economic instruments as a group are at least as applicable to developing countries as they are to developed countries. The earlier, formative stages of development in which developing countries find themselves make the introduction of new, flexible instruments both easier and more beneficial. However, underdeveloped and inefficient markets and institutional and administrative constraints call for careful selection of specific economic instruments that fit (or are adapted to fit) the country's special circumstances. In addition to the stage of development and associated constraints and opportunities, the country's cultural traditions and social organization are critical factors to consider and build on in selecting and introducing incentive-based instruments for environmental management and sustainable development.
Transitional economies, that is, formerly planned economies which are now in the process of market reforms and industrial restructuring, temporarily experience some of the characteristics of developing countries (low incomes, limited tax revenues, priority for recovery and growth), but in other aspects (levels of industrialization, education, etc.) they also share features common with developed Western European countries. [This is less true of Central Asian Republics which share the conditions of developing countries]. Transitional economies (such as Poland and Russia) have historically used economic instruments for pollution control (pollution charges), but their effectiveness as incentives were minimal because of the lack of enterprise autonomy and the existence of the soft budget constraints (charges were paid and included in production costs to be covered by state subsidies).
However, the familiarity of transitional economies with economic instruments and their bitter experience with command and controls in the economic sectors help them resist misguided Western
advice to replicate Western command and control regulations. Many of these countries aspiring to join the European Community (EC) are in the process of adopting EC environmental standards, but
appropriately aim to attain them gradually (through pre-announced compliance schedules and with
the use of economic instruments).
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Economic instruments have the advantage that they can influence the direction and pattern of development of human settlements and industries without unduly constraining the pace of development. The rapidity with which urban and industrial centers are growing in developing countries provides economic instruments with the opportunity to achieve cost-effective environmental improvements through structural change, an opportunity that flees with every new investment planned and implemented under existing policies. A related characteristic of developing countries is the large number of scattered, small-scale industries which are difficult to either regulate or tax. Product taxes, refundable deposits, and incentives for waste delivery are clearly preferable to effluent standards and charges or to market creation instruments which are costly to monitor and enforce when a large number of small and scattered polluters are involved.4 Rapidly growing vehicular pollution and traffic congestion, as a result of increasing car ownership, are other characteristics of developing countries that the selected instruments must address cost effectively. Car ownership taxes, differential fuel taxes, and road tolls are among such instruments, provided that alternative means of transport (e.g., mass transit systems) are available.ConclusionEconomic instruments as a group are at least as applicable to developing countries as they are to developed countries. The earlier, formative stages of development in which developing countries find themselves make the introduction of new, flexible instruments both easier and more beneficial. However, underdeveloped and inefficient markets and institutional and administrative constraints call for careful selection of specific economic instruments that fit (or are adapted to fit) the country's special circumstances. In addition to the stage of development and associated constraints and opportunities, the country's cultural traditions and social organization are critical factors to consider and build on in selecting and introducing incentive-based instruments for environmental management and sustainable development.Transitional economies, that is, formerly planned economies which are now in the process of market reforms and industrial restructuring, temporarily experience some of the characteristics of developing countries (low incomes, limited tax revenues, priority for recovery and growth), but in other aspects (levels of industrialization, education, etc.) they also share features common with developed Western European countries. [This is less true of Central Asian Republics which share the conditions of developing countries]. Transitional economies (such as Poland and Russia) have historically used economic instruments for pollution control (pollution charges), but their effectiveness as incentives were minimal because of the lack of enterprise autonomy and the existence of the soft budget constraints (charges were paid and included in production costs to be covered by state subsidies).
However, the familiarity of transitional economies with economic instruments and their bitter experience with command and controls in the economic sectors help them resist misguided Western
advice to replicate Western command and control regulations. Many of these countries aspiring to join the European Community (EC) are in the process of adopting EC environmental standards, but
appropriately aim to attain them gradually (through pre-announced compliance schedules and with
the use of economic instruments).
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Instrumen ekonomi memiliki keuntungan bahwa mereka dapat mempengaruhi arah dan pola pembangunan pemukiman manusia dan industri tanpa terlalu menghambat laju pembangunan. Kecepatan dengan pusat-pusat perkotaan dan industri tumbuh di negara-negara berkembang memberikan instrumen ekonomi dengan kesempatan untuk mencapai perbaikan lingkungan hemat biaya melalui perubahan struktural, kesempatan yang melarikan diri dengan setiap investasi baru yang direncanakan dan dilaksanakan di bawah kebijakan yang ada. Karakteristik terkait negara-negara berkembang adalah sejumlah besar tersebar, industri kecil yang sulit untuk baik mengatur atau pajak. Pajak Produk, uang jaminan, dan insentif untuk pengiriman limbah jelas lebih baik untuk standar limbah dan biaya atau instrumen penciptaan pasar yang mahal untuk memantau dan menegakkan ketika sejumlah besar polusi kecil dan tersebar secara involved.4 Cepat tumbuh polusi kendaraan dan lalu lintas kemacetan, sebagai akibat dari meningkatnya kepemilikan mobil, adalah karakteristik lain dari negara-negara berkembang bahwa instrumen yang dipilih harus mengatasi biaya efektif. Pajak kepemilikan mobil, pajak bahan bakar diferensial, dan jalan tol antara instrumen tersebut, asalkan sarana angkutan alternatif (misalnya, sistem transportasi massal) yang tersedia.
Kesimpulan
instrumen ekonomi sebagai suatu kelompok adalah setidaknya sama berlaku untuk negara-negara berkembang karena mereka adalah untuk negara-negara maju. Semakin awal, tahap formatif pembangunan di mana negara-negara berkembang menemukan diri mereka membuat pengenalan baru, fleksibel instrumen lebih mudah dan lebih menguntungkan. Namun, pasar yang belum berkembang dan tidak efisien dan kendala kelembagaan dan administrasi panggilan untuk hati-hati memilih instrumen ekonomi tertentu yang cocok (atau disesuaikan agar sesuai) keadaan khusus di negara itu. Selain tahap perkembangan dan kendala yang terkait dan peluang, tradisi budaya negara dan organisasi sosial merupakan faktor penting untuk mempertimbangkan dan membangun dalam memilih dan memperkenalkan instrumen berbasis insentif untuk pengelolaan lingkungan dan pembangunan berkelanjutan.
ekonomi Transisi, yaitu, sebelumnya ekonomi yang direncanakan yang sekarang dalam proses reformasi pasar dan restrukturisasi industri, sementara mengalami beberapa karakteristik negara-negara berkembang (pendapatan rendah, pendapatan pajak yang terbatas, prioritas untuk pemulihan dan pertumbuhan), tetapi dalam aspek lain (tingkat industrialisasi, pendidikan, dll) mereka juga berbagi fitur umum dengan negara-negara Eropa Barat maju. [Hal ini kurang benar Republik Asia Tengah yang berbagi kondisi negara-negara berkembang]. Ekonomi transisi (seperti Polandia dan Rusia) secara historis digunakan instrumen ekonomi untuk pengendalian pencemaran (polusi biaya), tetapi efektivitas mereka sebagai insentif yang minim karena kurangnya otonomi perusahaan dan keberadaan kendala anggaran lunak (biaya dibayar dan termasuk biaya produksi ditanggung oleh subsidi negara).
Namun, keakraban ekonomi transisi dengan instrumen ekonomi dan pengalaman pahit mereka dengan perintah dan kontrol di bidang ekonomi membantu mereka melawan Barat sesat
saran untuk meniru komando dan kontrol peraturan Barat. Banyak dari negara-negara ini bercita-cita untuk bergabung dengan Masyarakat Eropa (EC) sedang dalam proses mengadopsi EC standar lingkungan, tetapi
tepat bertujuan untuk mencapai mereka secara bertahap (melalui jadwal kepatuhan pra-mengumumkan dan dengan
penggunaan instrumen ekonomi).
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