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The restructuring approach
The restructuring literature has been primarily concerned with recent patterns of economic change (for an excellent review see Lovering, 1989). Even though many of those working in this area were explicit in their intention to avoid economic reductionism still the impression lingered that economic change was the 'prime mover' and that political and cultural changes somehow fol-lowed. This can be illustrated by reference to perhaps the most influential text in this genre — Doreen Massey's Spatial Divisions of' Labour. This book, published in 1984, provided the impetus for many of the locality studies that followed, most notably the CURS initiative.
Massey stresses that 'local histories and local distinctiveness are integral to the social nature of production relations. . . (59) but argues that such distinctiveness must be situated firmly within the unfolding of the spatial division of labour that runs parallel to the more familiar technical division of labour:
just as the division of labour between different workers can increase productivity and thereby profit so can its division between regions, by enabling the different stages of production each to respond more exactly to their own specific location factors. Spatial structure, in other words, is an active element in accumulation (74).
The spatial division of labour leads to different spaces being allocated different 'bundles of functions' within the overall division of labour.
Local areas are, in this schema, profoundly shaped by their 'roles' in the spatial division of labour. To describe this process Massey employs a geological metaphor which has subsequently come to define the spatial divisions of labour approach. Here localities are characterised as being made up of a series of 'layers' of investment, one imposed upon another. While this idea of local areas being formed by sedimented layers of economic func-tions is simple it allows us to capture the complexity of local economies. There is an articulation between the previous roles the locality has played and new ones. Each locality, having played a multitude of such roles must be treated as unique, while the processes which give rise to its uniqueness are the general processes of economic restructuring or the unfolding of the spatial division of labour. Massey appears, on the surface at least, to have pulled off a delicate balancing act. As she herself puts it `the challenge is to hold the two sides together; to understand the general underlying causes while at the same time recognising and appreciating the importance of the specific and unique' (300). This neatly encapsulates the whole purpose of locality studies of the 1980s.
The broad thrust of the 'restructuring' approach has been to treat the locality as constituted through the operation and inter-ction of general processes and relationships, such as spatial divisions of labour, which are inevitably realized and mediated in particular places. Locality in this sense is close to being merely the contingent outcome of these various processes, and is interesting to the social theorist mainly for its descriptive potential, in that it provides the site from which the workings of processes can be well observed. Locality studies from this standpoint would provide the `laboratories' (Bell and Newby, 1971) from which a much more theoretically informed equivalent to the old community studies could be produced. These would not have to be simply ideographic `glorifications of the uniqueness of place' (Warde, 1989) since they would be tied together by a more thoroughly worked out general theoretical framework, such as the `restructuring' thesis might eventually provide. This was indeed the apparent purpose of the CURS programme. On this reading, locality as such would not hold any special explanatory power.
But the fact that general processes can only be realized in and through particular places immediately suggests a more active role for at least certain `local' processes, since the nature of the exist-ing local social relations, political arrangements and so on must condition and contextualise the manner of their realization. This is where we begin to find references to the locality as a `basis' for collective action, or as an object of various subjective conceptions. In other words, the particular composition of a locality may generate distinctive outcomes which are worthy of attention; `locality effects' which may, or may not, be unique (Savage et al.,1987). This is not to presuppose, as Duncan suggests it must, that locality gives ‘privileged access’ to understanding, but that it is a context which must be taken into account. Among actors, for example, whether they be individuals or households or firms, what goes on around them, in *their* locality, is bound to form part of what they take into consideration when formulating their actions. A variety of ‘local social processes’ will therefore arise that invoke elements of the local situation; locality, or the local milieu, may then constitute one of the ‘collective situations’ within which people act, and one of the conditions framing the restructuring process.
Massey herself clearly rejects any simple deterministic link between economic change and change in the social, cultural, and political spheres. She seems to believe that these can also be regarded as being ‘layered‘ in localities. What is not clear however, is the extent to which these non-economic layers are independent of the economic or how it might he possible to bring the various layers together in a more “holistic” analysis of a given locality. This leads on to a further set of questions: what effect does an area‘s cultural or political distinctiveness have on its participation in the spatial divisions of labour? and, perhaps more importantly, are the ‘successive outcomes' of economic change necessarily determined by forces outside the locality or do local actors exercise sufhcient power to steer these forces in directions which result in outcomes which directly benefit them?
Subsequent work in this vein has not really brought us any nearer to solving these problems. With the exception perhaps of recent work emanating from the Lancaster research group (Bagguley et nI,, l990) work within the CURS programme has, as yet, remained firmly in the economic sphere and made no real attempt to conceptualise the relationship between economic change and cultural/political change within the various localities. ln part, this was the consequence of choosing local labour markets as the operational equivalents of localities, thereby making them the ‘cornerstone' of the localities approach (Peck, l989:42),
This decision imposes very serious limitations on the outcomes of the nnttlysis. Firstly, problems are manifest at the empirical level where local labour markets are usually defined as travel-to-work areas, As Peck admits.
Faced with the complex web of intersecting and overlapping travel-to-work patterns, which are themselves in a constant tate of flux, largely arbitrary judgements must be made about 'acceptable' levels of self-containment (1989:43).
Duncan and Savage (1989) reject local labour markets on this basis.
Secondly, making local labour markets (or travel to work areas) the defining characteristic of the locality also ensures that economic criteria will take precedence over other possible meanings. Social relations outside the workplace will escape this economic boundary, because, as Bowlby et al. note in their examination of gender relations and labour markets,
the problem is not simply that labour market boundaries are different for various groups, and especially for women and
men, making them difficult to identify — it is also that social relations outside the workplace are not necessarily confined within local labour markets (1986:329).
When attention is so firmly directed to economic change we once again run into problems in grasping the relationships between local economies, local cultural formations and local politics.
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Pendekatan restrukturisasi
sastra restrukturisasi telah terutama berkaitan dengan pola-pola baru dari perubahan ekonomi (untuk tinjauan yang hebat Lihat Lovering, 1989). Meskipun banyak dari mereka yang bekerja di daerah ini yang eksplisit dalam niat mereka untuk menghindari reductionism ekonomi masih bertahan kesan bahwa perubahan ekonomi adalah 'penggerak' dan bahwa perubahan politik dan budaya yang entah bagaimana mengikuti Kampa-lowed. Hal ini dapat diilustrasikan oleh referensi mungkin teks yang paling berpengaruh dalam genre ini — Doreen Massey Divisi spasial ' tenaga kerja. Buku ini, Diterbitkan pada tahun 1984, memberikan dorongan untuk banyak studi wilayah yang diikuti, terutama CURS inisiatif.
Massey menekankan bahwa ' sejarah lokal dan kekhasan lokal yang integral kepada sifat sosial dari produksi hubungan... (59) tetapi berpendapat bahwa kekhasan tersebut harus terletak tegas dalam berlangsung spasial Divisi Perburuhan yang membentang paralel menuju teknis lebih akrab Divisi Perburuhan:
sama seperti mengenai pembagian tugas antara pekerja yang berbeda dapat meningkatkan produktivitas dan dengan demikian keuntungan sehingga dapat Divisi antar daerah dengan memungkinkan berbagai tahap produksi masing-masing untuk merespon lebih tepat untuk faktor-faktor spesifik lokasi mereka sendiri. Struktur spasial, dengan kata lain, adalah elemen aktif akumulasi (74).
spasial Divisi Perburuhan mengarah ke berbagai ruang yang dialokasikan berbeda 'kumpulan fungsi' dalam keseluruhan Divisi Perburuhan.
daerah adalah, dalam skema ini, mendalam dibentuk oleh mereka 'peran' di Divisi spasial buruh. Untuk menggambarkan proses ini Massey mempekerjakan metafora geologi yang kemudian datang untuk mendefinisikan Divisi-divisi spasial buruh pendekatan. Di sini pemukiman dicirikan sebagai terdiri dari serangkaian 'lapisan' investasi, salah satu yang dipaksakan pada lain. Walaupun ide ini dari daerah yang dibentuk oleh lapisan sedimented func-tions ekonomi sederhana memungkinkan kita untuk menangkap kompleksitas ekonomi lokal. Ada artikulasi antara wilayah telah memainkan peran sebelumnya dan yang baru. Setiap desa, setelah bermain banyak peran tersebut harus diperlakukan sebagai unik, Sementara proses yang menimbulkan keunikannya adalah proses umum restrukturisasi ekonomi atau berlangsung spasial Divisi Perburuhan. Massey tampaknya, pada permukaan setidaknya, telah melepas tindakan penyeimbangan halus. Saat ia dirinya menempatkan ' Tantangannya adalah untuk menahan kedua belah pihak bersama-sama; untuk memahami umum mendasari penyebab sementara pada saat yang sama mengakui dan menghargai pentingnya spesifik dan unik ' (300). Ini rapi merangkum seluruh tujuan dari wilayah studi pada 1980-an.
dorong luas 'restrukturisasi' pendekatan telah memperlakukan wilayah seperti yang dibentuk melalui operasi dan inter-KSI melimpah dari proses Umum dan hubungan, seperti spasial Divisi buruh, yang pasti menyadari dan dimediasi khususnya tempat. Wilayah dalam pengertian ini adalah dekat untuk menjadi hanya kontingen hasil dari berbagai proses ini, dan sangat menarik untuk teoretisi sosial terutama untuk potensi deskriptif, yang menyediakan situs yang cara kerja proses dapat juga diamati. Studi wilayah dari sudut pandang ini akan memberikan 'laboratorium' (Bell dan Newby, 1971) dari yang setara lebih teoritis informasi dengan studi masyarakat yang tua bisa diproduksi. Ini tidak harus menjadi hanya duanya ideografik 'glorifications keunikan tempat' (Warde, 1989) karena mereka akan diikat bersama oleh kerangka teoretis umum yang lebih benar-benar bekerja keluar, seperti tesis 'restrukturisasi' mungkin akhirnya memberikan. Ini memang tujuan jelas program CURS. Membaca ini, wilayah seperti itu tidak akan menahan daya penjelas setiap khusus.
Tapi fakta bahwa proses umum hanya dapat diwujudkan dalam dan melalui tempat-tempat tertentu segera menunjukkan peran yang lebih aktif untuk proses setidaknya tertentu 'lokal', karena sifat sosial ada hubungan lokal, pengaturan politik dan seterusnya harus kondisi dan contextualise cara kesadaran mereka. Ini adalah di mana kita mulai menemukan referensi ke wilayah sebagai 'dasar' untuk tindakan kolektif, atau sebagai objek berbagai konsepsi subjektif. Dengan kata lain, komposisi sebuah wilayah tertentu dapat menghasilkan hasil yang khas yang layak perhatian; 'lokalitas efek' yang mungkin, atau mungkin tidak, harus unik (Savage et al., 1987). Hal ini tidak wajar, seperti Duncan menyarankan itu haruslah wilayah itu memberikan 'akses istimewa' pemahaman, tetapi bahwa konteks yang harus diperhitungkan. Antara aktor, misalnya, apakah mereka menjadi individu atau rumah tangga atau perusahaan, apa yang terjadi di sekitar mereka, dalam * mereka * lokalitas, pasti akan membentuk bagian dari apa yang mereka mengambil menjadi pertimbangan saat Memformulasi tindakan mereka. Berbagai 'proses sosial lokal' karena itu akan muncul yang meminta elemen situasi lokal; wilayah, atau lingkungan lokal, maka mungkin merupakan salah satu 'situasi kolektif' dalam orang yang bertindak, dan salah satu kondisi yang membingkai proses restrukturisasi.
Massey dirinya dengan jelas menolak setiap link deterministik sederhana antara perubahan ekonomi dan perubahan sosial, bola budaya, dan politik. Dia tampaknya percaya bahwa ini juga dapat dianggap sebagai yang 'berlapis' di pemukiman. Apa tidak jelas Namun, adalah sejauh lapisan-lapisan ini non-ekonomi yang independen dari ekonomi atau bagaimana mungkin ia mungkin untuk menyatukan berbagai lapisan dalam analisis "holistik" lebih dari sebuah wilayah tertentu. Ini mengarah serangkaian pertanyaan lebih lanjut: apa efek yang memiliki kekhasan budaya atau politik daerah pada partisipasi dalam divisi-divisi spasial tenaga kerja? dan, mungkin lebih penting, adalah 'hasil berturut-turut' perubahan ekonomi yang selalu ditentukan oleh kekuatan di luar wilayah atau melakukan aktor setempat latihan sufhcient kuasa untuk memimpin pasukan ini dalam arah yang mengakibatkan hasil yang langsung menguntungkan mereka?
Pekerjaan berikutnya dalam vena ini tidak benar-benar membawa kita lebih dekat untuk memecahkan masalah ini. Dengan pengecualian mungkin karya terbaru yang berasal dari kelompok riset Lancaster (Bagguley et nI,, l990) telah bekerja dalam program CURS, belum, tegas tetap dalam bidang ekonomi dan dibuat tidak nyata berusaha conceptualise hubungan antara perubahan ekonomi dan perubahan budaya/politik dalam berbagai pemukiman. Bagian LN, ini adalah akibat memilih pasar tenaga kerja lokal sebagai setara operasional dari pemukiman, sehingga membuat mereka 'landasan' pendekatan pemukiman (mematuk, l989:42),
Keputusan ini membebankan sangat serius keterbatasan pada hasil dari nnttlysis. Pertama, masalah yang nyata di tingkat empiris yang mana pasar tenaga kerja lokal biasanya didefinisikan sebagai daerah perjalanan kerja, mengakui sebagai mematuk.
dihadapkan dengan web kompleks berpotongan dan tumpang tindih pola perjalanan kerja, yang sendiri di tate konstan fluks, sebagian besar sewenang-wenang penilaian harus dilakukan 'diterima' tingkat penahanan diri (1989:43).
Duncan dan buas (1989) menolak pasar tenaga kerja setempat pada dasar ini.
kedua, membuat pasar tenaga kerja lokal (atau perjalanan ke area kerja) mendefinisikan karakteristik wilayah juga memastikan bahwa kriteria ekonomi akan diutamakan daripada lainnya kemungkinan arti. Hubungan sosial di luar tempat kerja akan melarikan diri ini batas ekonomi, karena, seperti Bowlby et al. diperhatikan dalam pemeriksaan mereka terhadap hubungan gender dan pasar tenaga kerja,
masalahnya bukan hanya bahwa batas-batas pasar tenaga kerja berbeda untuk berbagai kelompok, dan terutama bagi perempuan dan
laki-laki, membuat mereka sulit untuk mengidentifikasi — juga bahawa hubungan sosial di luar tempat kerja tidak selalu terbatas dalam pasar tenaga kerja lokal (1986:329).
ketika perhatian begitu kokoh diarahkan untuk perubahan ekonomi kita sekali lagi mengalami masalah dalam hubungan antara ekonomi lokal, formasi budaya lokal dan politik lokal menggenggam.
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The restructuring approach
The restructuring literature has been primarily concerned with recent patterns of economic change (for an excellent review see Lovering, 1989). Even though many of those working in this area were explicit in their intention to avoid economic reductionism still the impression lingered that economic change was the 'prime mover' and that political and cultural changes somehow fol-lowed. This can be illustrated by reference to perhaps the most influential text in this genre — Doreen Massey's Spatial Divisions of' Labour. This book, published in 1984, provided the impetus for many of the locality studies that followed, most notably the CURS initiative.
Massey stresses that 'local histories and local distinctiveness are integral to the social nature of production relations. . . (59) but argues that such distinctiveness must be situated firmly within the unfolding of the spatial division of labour that runs parallel to the more familiar technical division of labour:
just as the division of labour between different workers can increase productivity and thereby profit so can its division between regions, by enabling the different stages of production each to respond more exactly to their own specific location factors. Spatial structure, in other words, is an active element in accumulation (74).
The spatial division of labour leads to different spaces being allocated different 'bundles of functions' within the overall division of labour.
Local areas are, in this schema, profoundly shaped by their 'roles' in the spatial division of labour. To describe this process Massey employs a geological metaphor which has subsequently come to define the spatial divisions of labour approach. Here localities are characterised as being made up of a series of 'layers' of investment, one imposed upon another. While this idea of local areas being formed by sedimented layers of economic func-tions is simple it allows us to capture the complexity of local economies. There is an articulation between the previous roles the locality has played and new ones. Each locality, having played a multitude of such roles must be treated as unique, while the processes which give rise to its uniqueness are the general processes of economic restructuring or the unfolding of the spatial division of labour. Massey appears, on the surface at least, to have pulled off a delicate balancing act. As she herself puts it `the challenge is to hold the two sides together; to understand the general underlying causes while at the same time recognising and appreciating the importance of the specific and unique' (300). This neatly encapsulates the whole purpose of locality studies of the 1980s.
The broad thrust of the 'restructuring' approach has been to treat the locality as constituted through the operation and inter-ction of general processes and relationships, such as spatial divisions of labour, which are inevitably realized and mediated in particular places. Locality in this sense is close to being merely the contingent outcome of these various processes, and is interesting to the social theorist mainly for its descriptive potential, in that it provides the site from which the workings of processes can be well observed. Locality studies from this standpoint would provide the `laboratories' (Bell and Newby, 1971) from which a much more theoretically informed equivalent to the old community studies could be produced. These would not have to be simply ideographic `glorifications of the uniqueness of place' (Warde, 1989) since they would be tied together by a more thoroughly worked out general theoretical framework, such as the `restructuring' thesis might eventually provide. This was indeed the apparent purpose of the CURS programme. On this reading, locality as such would not hold any special explanatory power.
But the fact that general processes can only be realized in and through particular places immediately suggests a more active role for at least certain `local' processes, since the nature of the exist-ing local social relations, political arrangements and so on must condition and contextualise the manner of their realization. This is where we begin to find references to the locality as a `basis' for collective action, or as an object of various subjective conceptions. In other words, the particular composition of a locality may generate distinctive outcomes which are worthy of attention; `locality effects' which may, or may not, be unique (Savage et al.,1987). This is not to presuppose, as Duncan suggests it must, that locality gives ‘privileged access’ to understanding, but that it is a context which must be taken into account. Among actors, for example, whether they be individuals or households or firms, what goes on around them, in *their* locality, is bound to form part of what they take into consideration when formulating their actions. A variety of ‘local social processes’ will therefore arise that invoke elements of the local situation; locality, or the local milieu, may then constitute one of the ‘collective situations’ within which people act, and one of the conditions framing the restructuring process.
Massey herself clearly rejects any simple deterministic link between economic change and change in the social, cultural, and political spheres. She seems to believe that these can also be regarded as being ‘layered‘ in localities. What is not clear however, is the extent to which these non-economic layers are independent of the economic or how it might he possible to bring the various layers together in a more “holistic” analysis of a given locality. This leads on to a further set of questions: what effect does an area‘s cultural or political distinctiveness have on its participation in the spatial divisions of labour? and, perhaps more importantly, are the ‘successive outcomes' of economic change necessarily determined by forces outside the locality or do local actors exercise sufhcient power to steer these forces in directions which result in outcomes which directly benefit them?
Subsequent work in this vein has not really brought us any nearer to solving these problems. With the exception perhaps of recent work emanating from the Lancaster research group (Bagguley et nI,, l990) work within the CURS programme has, as yet, remained firmly in the economic sphere and made no real attempt to conceptualise the relationship between economic change and cultural/political change within the various localities. ln part, this was the consequence of choosing local labour markets as the operational equivalents of localities, thereby making them the ‘cornerstone' of the localities approach (Peck, l989:42),
This decision imposes very serious limitations on the outcomes of the nnttlysis. Firstly, problems are manifest at the empirical level where local labour markets are usually defined as travel-to-work areas, As Peck admits.
Faced with the complex web of intersecting and overlapping travel-to-work patterns, which are themselves in a constant tate of flux, largely arbitrary judgements must be made about 'acceptable' levels of self-containment (1989:43).
Duncan and Savage (1989) reject local labour markets on this basis.
Secondly, making local labour markets (or travel to work areas) the defining characteristic of the locality also ensures that economic criteria will take precedence over other possible meanings. Social relations outside the workplace will escape this economic boundary, because, as Bowlby et al. note in their examination of gender relations and labour markets,
the problem is not simply that labour market boundaries are different for various groups, and especially for women and
men, making them difficult to identify — it is also that social relations outside the workplace are not necessarily confined within local labour markets (1986:329).
When attention is so firmly directed to economic change we once again run into problems in grasping the relationships between local economies, local cultural formations and local politics.
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