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IntroductionEarnings management can be categorized into accrual earnings management and realearnings management, based on whether or not it leads to direct cash flow consequences.Accrual earnings management is the managerial manipulation of earnings viaaccounting estimates and methods, which has no direct impact on cash flows. Bycontrast, real earnings management is the earnings manipulation through operationalactivities, which directly affects cash flows. Relative to accrual earnings management,real earnings management has received little attention in the literature. Recently,Roychowdhury (2006) comprehensively investigates earnings management throughreal activities manipulation. He develops empirical models to measure real earningsmanagement, and documents evidence that managers manipulate earnings by offeringprice discounts or more lenient credit terms to increase sales, reducing discretionaryexpenditures, or overproducing products to lower cost of goods sold. His findingsindicate that managers usually take three types of real activities manipulation, namely,sales manipulation, reduction of discretionary expenditures, and overproduction.
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