Racial Differences in IQ but Not in IntelligenceLet us now consider ho terjemahan - Racial Differences in IQ but Not in IntelligenceLet us now consider ho Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

Racial Differences in IQ but Not in

Racial Differences in IQ but Not in Intelligence
Let us now consider how the definition of intelligence as processing can aid
in answering the question of what causes differences in IQ among groups of
people. Theoretically, the answer depends on whether group differences in processing
accompany group differences in IQ. I would assume that in the absence
of processing differences among groups, differences in IQ are most likely due to
cultural influences.
We are also aided in understanding group differences in IQ by noting those
that must be due to culture. Schooling effects are a clear instance of group
differences in IQ that must be due to the presence of differences in the culture's
provision of information. A comprehensive review of the extent to which various
factors associated with schooling have their effects on IQ is provided in Ceci
(1991). I focus on studies of children who were born just before or just after an
arbitrary cutoff date for school entry. The fact that one was born before or after
an arbitrary date obviously has nothing to do with either one's genetic plan or with
the physical effects of the environment on the brain (i.e., with factors that
influence processing). But being born before or after a particular date may have
a great deal to do with whether a child is in the fourth or the fifth grade by the age
10 and, consequently, with how much that child has been taught by the age of 10.
Cahan and Cohen (1989) conducted the archival study of the effects of cutoff dates for school entry on intelligence test scores. They administered portions of 12
different standard IQ tests to over 11,000 fourth, fifth, and sixth graders attending
the state-administered elementary schools in Jerusalem in 1987. The results were
unambiguous. Schooling affected raw intelligence test scores on all 12 tests,
including the Raven Progressive Matrices (Raven, Court, & Raven, 1975). I
mention the Raven test because it is highly g loaded (Jensen, 1993a) and, by
implication, has been thought not to be subject to cultural influence. Cahan and
Cohen (1989) have concluded that schooling is the major reason that intelligence
test scores increase with age.
As one might expect, schooling effects owing to cutoff dates have also been
found for other tests of knowledge such as reading and mathematics (Morrison,
Griffith, & Alberts, 1997). Schooling effects, however, have also been found for
tasks that one would usually consider to be elementary cognitive tasks and
unlikely to be subject to cultural influences. Cognitive tasks influenced by
schooling include phonetic segmentation (Bentin, Hammer, & Cahan, 1991;
Morrison, Smith, & Dow-Ehrensberger, 1995), short-term recall (Ferreira &
Morrison, 1994; Varnhagen, Morrison, & Everall, 1994; Morrison et al., 1995),
and mental arithmetic (Bisanz, Morrison, & Dunn, 1995). Tasks that appear to be
tests of processing are subject to schooling effects. Hence, the definition of
processing must be derived from a theoretical understanding of the task in
question and not simply assumed on the basis of the superficial characteristics of
the task. I return to the discussion of cultural influences on what appear to be
elementary cognitive tasks as I discuss racial differences in IQ. For the moment,
however, bear in mind that schooling effects provide a clear example of the
influence of a cultural factor on what are conventionally designated as tests of
intelligence, achievement, and basic cognitive functioning. Schooling effects must
reflect the influence of the culture on what one knows. Thus, tasks affected by
schooling must be, to some degree, culturally influenced.
Racial differences in IQ are a prime example of the application of the
procedural guideline that I suggest for the determination of group differences in
IQ. Differences in average IQ between Blacks and Whites on the order of about
1 standard deviation (about 15 IQ points) are well documented (Jensen, 1985) and
are present as early as 3 years of age (Fagan & Monfie, 1988; Peoples, Fagan, &
Drotar, 1995). I make no attempt here to trace the history of the arguments that
have been made for the causes of racial differences in IQ. The interested reader
may consult the historical discussions contained in Block and Dworkin (1976) or
the references cited by Neisser et al. (1996). Suffice it to say that there are those
who lean toward a genetic explanation and those who favor a cultural explanation
of Black-White differences in IQ.
I accept the evidence for IQ differences between Blacks and Whites at face
value. Theoretically, I ask if the presence of racial differences in IQ is accompanied
by differences between Blacks and Whites on measures of the spontaneous
processing of information. If so, the search for the causes of Black-White
differences in IQ should be directed toward genetic or physical environmental
factors. If not, the search should concentrate on cultural influences.
As I noted in my discussion of schooling effects on IQ, performance on some
elementary cognitive tasks may be culturally influenced. Thus, one must be
cautious in attributing racial differences in IQ to processing differences on the basis of any or all cognitive tasks. A case in point is the study reported by Jensen
(1993b) of 585 White and 235 Black schoolchildren whose reaction times were
measured on what appeared to be simple information-processing tasks. Jensen
used four tasks, which varied in the time taken for successful solution. The easiest
task was a simple reaction time task in which the time taken to lift one's finger
from a home key on presentation of a signal from a single source was measured.
A slightly more demanding task measured the same reaction times when the
signal to respond came from any one of eight sources. In a more complex
discrimination task, reaction time was measured when three signals (out of eight)
were activated at once and the child had to decide which of the three was located
at the greatest distance from the other two before reacting. The most demanding
task was the measurement of reaction times over a series of mental arithmetic
problems involving addition, subtraction, or multiplication of single-digit
numbers.
Jensen's results (taken from the data given by Jensen, 1993b, in his Appendices
A and B) indicated that mean reaction times for Blacks and Whites did not
vary on the two simple tasks but did differ on the two more demanding tasks. As
noted in the summary of schooling effects, age of school entry alters performance
on tests of short-term memory and the speed of solution of mental arithmetic
problems. Thus, the present theory suggests that the pattern of Jensen's (1993b)
results may actually indicate the influence of a cultural factor on the performance
differences of Blacks and Whites. The suggestion of the present theory as the
reason for Jensen's results could easily be checked by using Jensen's four reaction
time tasks in a study of children (of the same race and the same age) whose
birthdates fall just before or just after an arbitrary cutoff date for school entry. If
children of the same age who varied in schooling did not differ on Jensen's simple
tasks but did differ on Jensen's more demanding tasks, it would mark the more
demanding tasks (but not the simple tasks) as subject to cultural influences. The
cultural factors affecting Black-White differences, of course, may not be the same
as those influencing schooling effects.
In my own program, I have obtained IQ scores for 299 preschoolers at 3 years
of age, who, as infants, were tested for attention to novelty. Attention to novelty
is a processing task that does not vary for children of various school ages and is
applicable from birth to senescence (Fagan & Haiken-Vasen, 1997). Of the 299,
35 children were Black, and 264 were White. All came from middle-class,
suburban homes. Their parents, as a group, did not differ in level of education. In
addition, I participated in a multisite, national study of 70 high-risk infants (34
White and 36 Black) from predominantly lower-class families, who were tested
for visual attention to novelty as infants and for IQ on the Bayley Scales of Infant
Development (Bayley, 1969) at 2 years of age (Fagan & Shepherd, 1992). Finally,
as part of a dissertation by Haiken-Vasen (1995), we tested 96 schoolchildren (64
Black and 32 White), with a mean age of about 9 years (SD = 2.6), who were
attending church-affiliated schools. The schoolchildren were tested for both visual
attention to novelty and, on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (Dunn & Dunn,
1981), for IQ. The specific procedures for testing the visual novelty preferences
of older children and adults are given in Fagan and Haiken-Vasen (1997). With
the exception of briefer study times, however, testing of attention to visual novelty.
0/5000
Dari: -
Ke: -
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1: [Salinan]
Disalin!
Racial Differences in IQ but Not in Intelligence
Let us now consider how the definition of intelligence as processing can aid
in answering the question of what causes differences in IQ among groups of
people. Theoretically, the answer depends on whether group differences in processing
accompany group differences in IQ. I would assume that in the absence
of processing differences among groups, differences in IQ are most likely due to
cultural influences.
We are also aided in understanding group differences in IQ by noting those
that must be due to culture. Schooling effects are a clear instance of group
differences in IQ that must be due to the presence of differences in the culture's
provision of information. A comprehensive review of the extent to which various
factors associated with schooling have their effects on IQ is provided in Ceci
(1991). I focus on studies of children who were born just before or just after an
arbitrary cutoff date for school entry. The fact that one was born before or after
an arbitrary date obviously has nothing to do with either one's genetic plan or with
the physical effects of the environment on the brain (i.e., with factors that
influence processing). But being born before or after a particular date may have
a great deal to do with whether a child is in the fourth or the fifth grade by the age
10 and, consequently, with how much that child has been taught by the age of 10.
Cahan and Cohen (1989) conducted the archival study of the effects of cutoff dates for school entry on intelligence test scores. They administered portions of 12
different standard IQ tests to over 11,000 fourth, fifth, and sixth graders attending
the state-administered elementary schools in Jerusalem in 1987. The results were
unambiguous. Schooling affected raw intelligence test scores on all 12 tests,
including the Raven Progressive Matrices (Raven, Court, & Raven, 1975). I
mention the Raven test because it is highly g loaded (Jensen, 1993a) and, by
implication, has been thought not to be subject to cultural influence. Cahan and
Cohen (1989) have concluded that schooling is the major reason that intelligence
test scores increase with age.
As one might expect, schooling effects owing to cutoff dates have also been
found for other tests of knowledge such as reading and mathematics (Morrison,
Griffith, & Alberts, 1997). Schooling effects, however, have also been found for
tasks that one would usually consider to be elementary cognitive tasks and
unlikely to be subject to cultural influences. Cognitive tasks influenced by
schooling include phonetic segmentation (Bentin, Hammer, & Cahan, 1991;
Morrison, Smith, & Dow-Ehrensberger, 1995), short-term recall (Ferreira &
Morrison, 1994; Varnhagen, Morrison, & Everall, 1994; Morrison et al., 1995),
and mental arithmetic (Bisanz, Morrison, & Dunn, 1995). Tasks that appear to be
tests of processing are subject to schooling effects. Hence, the definition of
processing must be derived from a theoretical understanding of the task in
question and not simply assumed on the basis of the superficial characteristics of
the task. I return to the discussion of cultural influences on what appear to be
elementary cognitive tasks as I discuss racial differences in IQ. For the moment,
however, bear in mind that schooling effects provide a clear example of the
influence of a cultural factor on what are conventionally designated as tests of
intelligence, achievement, and basic cognitive functioning. Schooling effects must
reflect the influence of the culture on what one knows. Thus, tasks affected by
schooling must be, to some degree, culturally influenced.
Racial differences in IQ are a prime example of the application of the
procedural guideline that I suggest for the determination of group differences in
IQ. Differences in average IQ between Blacks and Whites on the order of about
1 standard deviation (about 15 IQ points) are well documented (Jensen, 1985) and
are present as early as 3 years of age (Fagan & Monfie, 1988; Peoples, Fagan, &
Drotar, 1995). I make no attempt here to trace the history of the arguments that
have been made for the causes of racial differences in IQ. The interested reader
may consult the historical discussions contained in Block and Dworkin (1976) or
the references cited by Neisser et al. (1996). Suffice it to say that there are those
who lean toward a genetic explanation and those who favor a cultural explanation
of Black-White differences in IQ.
I accept the evidence for IQ differences between Blacks and Whites at face
value. Theoretically, I ask if the presence of racial differences in IQ is accompanied
by differences between Blacks and Whites on measures of the spontaneous
processing of information. If so, the search for the causes of Black-White
differences in IQ should be directed toward genetic or physical environmental
factors. If not, the search should concentrate on cultural influences.
As I noted in my discussion of schooling effects on IQ, performance on some
elementary cognitive tasks may be culturally influenced. Thus, one must be
cautious in attributing racial differences in IQ to processing differences on the basis of any or all cognitive tasks. A case in point is the study reported by Jensen
(1993b) of 585 White and 235 Black schoolchildren whose reaction times were
measured on what appeared to be simple information-processing tasks. Jensen
used four tasks, which varied in the time taken for successful solution. The easiest
task was a simple reaction time task in which the time taken to lift one's finger
from a home key on presentation of a signal from a single source was measured.
A slightly more demanding task measured the same reaction times when the
signal to respond came from any one of eight sources. In a more complex
discrimination task, reaction time was measured when three signals (out of eight)
were activated at once and the child had to decide which of the three was located
at the greatest distance from the other two before reacting. The most demanding
task was the measurement of reaction times over a series of mental arithmetic
problems involving addition, subtraction, or multiplication of single-digit
numbers.
Jensen's results (taken from the data given by Jensen, 1993b, in his Appendices
A and B) indicated that mean reaction times for Blacks and Whites did not
vary on the two simple tasks but did differ on the two more demanding tasks. As
noted in the summary of schooling effects, age of school entry alters performance
on tests of short-term memory and the speed of solution of mental arithmetic
problems. Thus, the present theory suggests that the pattern of Jensen's (1993b)
results may actually indicate the influence of a cultural factor on the performance
differences of Blacks and Whites. The suggestion of the present theory as the
reason for Jensen's results could easily be checked by using Jensen's four reaction
time tasks in a study of children (of the same race and the same age) whose
birthdates fall just before or just after an arbitrary cutoff date for school entry. If
children of the same age who varied in schooling did not differ on Jensen's simple
tasks but did differ on Jensen's more demanding tasks, it would mark the more
demanding tasks (but not the simple tasks) as subject to cultural influences. The
cultural factors affecting Black-White differences, of course, may not be the same
as those influencing schooling effects.
In my own program, I have obtained IQ scores for 299 preschoolers at 3 years
of age, who, as infants, were tested for attention to novelty. Attention to novelty
is a processing task that does not vary for children of various school ages and is
applicable from birth to senescence (Fagan & Haiken-Vasen, 1997). Of the 299,
35 children were Black, and 264 were White. All came from middle-class,
suburban homes. Their parents, as a group, did not differ in level of education. In
addition, I participated in a multisite, national study of 70 high-risk infants (34
White and 36 Black) from predominantly lower-class families, who were tested
for visual attention to novelty as infants and for IQ on the Bayley Scales of Infant
Development (Bayley, 1969) at 2 years of age (Fagan & Shepherd, 1992). Finally,
as part of a dissertation by Haiken-Vasen (1995), we tested 96 schoolchildren (64
Black and 32 White), with a mean age of about 9 years (SD = 2.6), who were
attending church-affiliated schools. The schoolchildren were tested for both visual
attention to novelty and, on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (Dunn & Dunn,
1981), for IQ. The specific procedures for testing the visual novelty preferences
of older children and adults are given in Fagan and Haiken-Vasen (1997). With
the exception of briefer study times, however, testing of attention to visual novelty.
Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:[Salinan]
Disalin!
Perbedaan ras dalam IQ tetapi tidak di Intelijen
Sekarang mari kita bahas bagaimana definisi kecerdasan pemrosesan dapat membantu
dalam menjawab pertanyaan tentang apa yang menyebabkan perbedaan IQ antara kelompok
orang. Secara teoritis, jawabannya tergantung pada apakah perbedaan kelompok dalam pengolahan
menemani perbedaan kelompok dalam IQ. Saya akan berasumsi bahwa dengan tidak adanya
perbedaan pengolahan antara kelompok, perbedaan IQ yang paling mungkin karena
pengaruh budaya.
Kami juga dibantu dalam perbedaan kelompok pemahaman IQ dengan mencatat orang-orang
yang harus karena budaya. Efek sekolah adalah contoh yang jelas dari kelompok
perbedaan IQ yang harus karena adanya perbedaan dalam budaya
penyediaan informasi. Sebuah tinjauan komprehensif sejauh mana berbagai
faktor yang terkait dengan sekolah memiliki efek mereka pada IQ disediakan di Ceci
(1991). Saya fokus pada penelitian anak-anak yang lahir sebelum atau hanya setelah
tanggal cutoff sewenang-wenang untuk masuk sekolah. Fakta bahwa satu lahir sebelum atau sesudah
tanggal sewenang-wenang jelas tidak ada hubungannya dengan salah satu rencana genetik atau dengan
efek fisik lingkungan pada otak (misalnya, dengan faktor-faktor yang
memengaruhi pengolahan). Tapi yang lahir sebelum atau setelah tanggal tertentu mungkin memiliki
banyak hubungannya dengan apakah seorang anak di keempat atau kelas lima pada usia
10 dan, akibatnya, dengan berapa banyak anak telah diajarkan pada usia 10.
Cahan dan Cohen (1989) melakukan penelitian arsip efek tanggal cutoff untuk masuk sekolah pada skor tes kecerdasan. Mereka diberikan porsi 12
berbeda tes IQ standar lebih dari 11.000 keempat, siswa kelas lima, dan enam menghadiri
sekolah dasar negara yang dikelola di Yerusalem pada tahun 1987. Hasilnya
jelas. Sekolah dipengaruhi intelijen mentah hasil tes pada semua 12 tes,
termasuk Raven Progressive Matrices (Raven, Pengadilan, & Raven, 1975). Saya
menyebutkan tes Raven karena g dimuat sangat (Jensen, 1993a) dan, dengan
implikasi, telah dipikirkan untuk tidak tunduk pada pengaruh budaya. Cahan dan
Cohen (1989) telah menyimpulkan bahwa sekolah adalah alasan utama bahwa kecerdasan
nilai tes meningkat dengan usia.
Seperti yang sudah diduga, sekolah efek karena tanggal cutoff juga telah
ditemukan untuk tes pengetahuan lainnya seperti membaca dan matematika (Morrison,
Griffith, & Alberts, 1997). Sekolah efek, bagaimanapun, juga telah ditemukan untuk
tugas-tugas yang satu biasanya akan mempertimbangkan untuk menjadi tugas kognitif dasar dan
tidak mungkin tunduk pada pengaruh budaya. Tugas-tugas kognitif dipengaruhi oleh
sekolah termasuk segmentasi fonetik (Bentin, Hammer, & Cahan, 1991;
Morrison, Smith, & Dow-Ehrensberger, 1995), mengingat jangka pendek (Ferreira &
Morrison, 1994; Varnhagen, Morrison, & Everall, 1994; Morrison et al., 1995),
dan aritmatika mental (Bisanz, Morrison, & Dunn, 1995). Tugas yang tampaknya
tes pengolahan tunduk pada sekolah efek. Oleh karena itu, definisi
pengolahan harus berasal dari pemahaman teoritis tugas dalam
pertanyaan dan tidak hanya diasumsikan berdasarkan karakteristik superfisial
tugas. Saya kembali ke pembahasan pengaruh budaya pada apa yang tampak sebagai
tugas kognitif dasar seperti yang saya bahas perbedaan rasial di IQ. Untuk saat ini,
bagaimanapun, ingatlah bahwa efek sekolah memberikan contoh yang jelas dari
pengaruh faktor budaya pada apa yang secara konvensional ditetapkan sebagai tes
kecerdasan, prestasi, dan fungsi kognitif dasar. Efek sekolah harus
mencerminkan pengaruh budaya pada apa yang tahu. Dengan demikian, tugas dipengaruhi oleh
sekolah harus, sampai tingkat tertentu, budaya dipengaruhi.
Perbedaan ras dalam IQ adalah contoh utama dari penerapan
pedoman prosedural yang saya sarankan untuk penentuan perbedaan kelompok di
IQ. Perbedaan rata-rata IQ antara kulit hitam dan kulit putih pada urutan dari sekitar
1 deviasi standar (sekitar 15 poin IQ) yang didokumentasikan dengan baik (Jensen, 1985) dan
hadir sejak 3 tahun (Fagan & Monfie, 1988; Peoples, Fagan , &
Drotar, 1995). Aku tidak berusaha di sini untuk melacak sejarah argumen yang
telah dibuat untuk penyebab perbedaan ras dalam IQ. Pembaca yang tertarik
dapat berkonsultasi diskusi sejarah yang terkandung di Blok dan Dworkin (1976) atau
referensi yang dikutip oleh Neisser et al. (1996). Cukuplah untuk mengatakan bahwa ada orang-orang
yang bersandar terhadap penjelasan genetik dan mereka yang mendukung penjelasan budaya
perbedaan Hitam-Putih di IQ.
Saya menerima bukti perbedaan IQ antara kulit hitam dan kulit putih di wajah
nilai. Secara teoritis, saya bertanya apakah kehadiran perbedaan ras di IQ disertai
oleh perbedaan antara kulit hitam dan kulit putih pada langkah-langkah yang spontan
pengolahan informasi. Jika demikian, pencarian penyebab Hitam-Putih
perbedaan IQ harus diarahkan lingkungan genetik atau fisik
faktor. Jika tidak, pencarian harus berkonsentrasi pada pengaruh budaya.
Seperti yang saya sebutkan dalam diskusi saya sekolah efek pada IQ, kinerja pada beberapa
tugas kognitif dasar dapat dipengaruhi budaya. Dengan demikian, kita harus berhati-
hati dalam menghubungkan perbedaan ras dalam IQ perbedaan pengolahan atas dasar salah satu atau semua tugas-tugas kognitif. Salah satu contoh adalah penelitian yang dilaporkan oleh Jensen
(1993b) dari 585 Putih dan 235 sekolah hitam yang waktu reaksi yang
diukur pada apa yang tampaknya menjadi tugas pemrosesan informasi sederhana. Jensen
menggunakan empat tugas yang bervariasi dalam waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk solusi sukses. Yang paling mudah
Tugas adalah tugas waktu reaksi sederhana di mana waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk mengangkat jari seseorang
dari kunci rumah pada penyajian sinyal dari satu sumber diukur.
Sebuah tugas yang sedikit lebih menuntut mengukur waktu reaksi yang sama ketika
sinyal untuk merespon datang dari salah satu dari delapan sumber. Dalam lebih kompleks
tugas diskriminasi, waktu reaksi diukur ketika tiga sinyal (dari delapan)
yang aktif sekaligus dan anak harus memutuskan mana dari ketiga terletak
pada jarak yang terbesar dari dua lainnya sebelum bereaksi. Yang paling menuntut
tugas adalah pengukuran waktu reaksi atas serangkaian aritmatika mental
masalah yang melibatkan penambahan, pengurangan, atau kelipatan satu digit
angka.
Hasil Jensen (diambil dari data yang diberikan oleh Jensen, 1993b, dalam Lampiran nya
A dan B) menunjukkan bahwa berarti waktu reaksi untuk kulit hitam dan kulit putih tidak
bervariasi pada dua tugas-tugas sederhana tetapi berbeda pada dua tugas lebih menuntut. Seperti
tercantum dalam ringkasan efek sekolah, usia masuk sekolah mengubah kinerja
pada tes memori jangka pendek dan kecepatan solusi aritmatika mental
masalah. Dengan demikian, teori ini menunjukkan bahwa pola (1993b) Jensen dari
hasil sebenarnya menunjukkan pengaruh faktor budaya terhadap kinerja
perbedaan kulit hitam dan kulit putih. Saran dari teori ini sebagai
alasan untuk hasil Jensen bisa dengan mudah diperiksa dengan menggunakan empat reaksi Jensen
tugas waktu dalam studi anak-anak (dari ras yang sama dan usia yang sama) yang
tanggal lahir jatuh sebelum atau sesudah tanggal cutoff sewenang-wenang untuk masuk sekolah. Jika
anak-anak pada usia yang sama yang bervariasi di sekolah tidak berbeda pada sederhana Jensen
tugas tetapi berbeda pada tugas Jensen lebih menuntut, itu akan menandai lebih
tugas menuntut (tapi bukan tugas-tugas sederhana) sebagai subjek pengaruh budaya. Para
faktor budaya yang mempengaruhi perbedaan Hitam-Putih, tentu saja, mungkin tidak sama
dengan yang mempengaruhi efek pendidikan.
Dalam program saya sendiri, saya telah memperoleh nilai IQ untuk anak-anak prasekolah 299 pada 3 tahun
usia, yang, seperti bayi, diuji memperhatikan hal-hal baru. Perhatian terhadap hal baru
adalah tugas pengolahan yang tidak bervariasi untuk anak-anak dari berbagai usia sekolah dan
berlaku dari lahir sampai penuaan (Fagan & Haiken-Vasen, 1997). Dari 299,
35 anak-anak hitam, dan 264 adalah putih. Semua berasal dari kelas menengah,
rumah pinggiran kota. Orang tua mereka, sebagai kelompok, tidak berbeda dalam tingkat pendidikan. Di
samping itu, saya berpartisipasi dalam multisite sebuah studi nasional 70 bayi berisiko tinggi (34
Putih dan Hitam 36) dari keluarga kelas bawah terutama, yang diuji
untuk perhatian visual terhadap hal baru sebagai bayi dan IQ pada Bayley Scales of Infant
Pengembangan (Bayley, 1969) pada 2 tahun (Fagan & Shepherd, 1992). Akhirnya,
sebagai bagian dari disertasi oleh Haiken-Vasen (1995), kami menguji 96 anak sekolah (64
Hitam dan Putih 32), dengan usia rata-rata sekitar 9 tahun (SD = 2,6), yang
menghadiri sekolah yang berafiliasi dengan gereja. Anak sekolah diuji untuk kedua visual yang
memperhatikan hal-hal baru dan, pada Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (Dunn & Dunn,
1981), untuk IQ. Prosedur khusus untuk menguji preferensi baru visual yang
anak-anak yang lebih tua dan orang dewasa diberikan dalam Fagan dan Haiken-Vasen (1997). Dengan
pengecualian kali studi singkat, namun, pengujian perhatian terhadap hal baru visual.
Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
 
Bahasa lainnya
Dukungan alat penerjemahan: Afrikans, Albania, Amhara, Arab, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahasa Indonesia, Basque, Belanda, Belarussia, Bengali, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Burma, Cebuano, Ceko, Chichewa, China, Cina Tradisional, Denmark, Deteksi bahasa, Esperanto, Estonia, Farsi, Finlandia, Frisia, Gaelig, Gaelik Skotlandia, Galisia, Georgia, Gujarati, Hausa, Hawaii, Hindi, Hmong, Ibrani, Igbo, Inggris, Islan, Italia, Jawa, Jepang, Jerman, Kannada, Katala, Kazak, Khmer, Kinyarwanda, Kirghiz, Klingon, Korea, Korsika, Kreol Haiti, Kroat, Kurdi, Laos, Latin, Latvia, Lituania, Luksemburg, Magyar, Makedonia, Malagasi, Malayalam, Malta, Maori, Marathi, Melayu, Mongol, Nepal, Norsk, Odia (Oriya), Pashto, Polandia, Portugis, Prancis, Punjabi, Rumania, Rusia, Samoa, Serb, Sesotho, Shona, Sindhi, Sinhala, Slovakia, Slovenia, Somali, Spanyol, Sunda, Swahili, Swensk, Tagalog, Tajik, Tamil, Tatar, Telugu, Thai, Turki, Turkmen, Ukraina, Urdu, Uyghur, Uzbek, Vietnam, Wales, Xhosa, Yiddi, Yoruba, Yunani, Zulu, Bahasa terjemahan.

Copyright ©2024 I Love Translation. All reserved.

E-mail: