Early multiword utterancesThe first evidence of grammatical knowledge  terjemahan - Early multiword utterancesThe first evidence of grammatical knowledge  Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

Early multiword utterancesThe first

Early multiword utterances
The first evidence of grammatical knowledge in production comes when children combine units of the language in a single utterance. For children acquiring English, the units are typically words, and, thus, the beginning of structured speech is marked by the appearance of multiword utterances. However, many children produce transitional forms that can blur the distinction between the one-word and two-word stages of language production.
The transition from one-word speech
Vertical constructions. Before they produce two-word utterances, some children utter successive single-word utterances that seem to be related to each other in meaning in the same way that the words in a two-word utterance are. For example: one little girl who woke up with an eye infection pointed to her eye and said, “ow. Eye”. In this case, each word had the same intonation contour as if it had been said by itself, and the two words were separated by a pause. However, the expressed meaning clearly involved a relation between the two words. At this stage, children also sometimes produce. A single-word utterance that builds on someone else’s previous utterance. Scollon (1979) called these sequences “vertical constructions,”because when researchers transcribe what children say, they write each utterance on a new line. A two-word sentence, in contrast, would be a horizontal construction and would be written on the same line in transcription.
Unanalyzed word combinations and “word + jargon” combinations. There are other transitional forms besides these vertical constructions. Most children have at least some multiword phrases in their repertoires that have been memorized as unanalyzed wholes; these phrases therefore do not reflect the development of the ability to combine words. I want and I don’t know , are examples of unanalyzed wholes common in children’s early language. Some children-typically those who have been producing long strings of jargon since their babbling days-produce utterances longer than one word by inserting one clear word into what is otherwise an incomprehensible babble sequence. The result can sound something like “mumble mumble mumble cookie?” to further complicate matters, all these transitional phenomena may exist simultaneously, so that one child’s first multiword utterances may include some rote-learned wholes, some “jargon + word” combinations, and some truly productive word combinations.
Two-word combinations
The beginning of a productive system. At some point, productive word combinations begin. We say that children have a productive system when they use the words in their vocabularies in different combinations. A sample of the two-word utterances produced by one child during a 1-month period is presented in Box 6.1. the variety of utterances in this box suggests that the boy who produced these utterances was able to combine the words in his limited vocabulary productively. For example, he could say that anything is big or little; he could say that daddy and Andrew walk and sleep. (and you would predict from the appearance of the utterance “Daddy sit” on this list that the child could also produce “Andrew sit”). It’s also a good bet-and crucial to the claim that the child has a productive system-that these utterances were not just reduced imitations of sentences he had heard adults produce. The test would be to introduce this little boy to a new person, Emily. If his linguistic knowledge were productive, he should immediately be able to produce “Emily sit”. “Emily walk”, and so on.
Meanings in two-word utterances. Although we say that children’s systems are productive when children can put words together in novel combinations, children’s first word combinations are limited in the range of relational meanings expressed. (the term relational meaning refers to the relation between the referents of the words in a word combination. So, for example, in the utterance, “my teddy”, the word my refers to the speaker and the word teddy refers to a stuffed animal. The relational meaning is that of possession).
Roger brown proposed a list of eight relational meanings that he claimed accounted for the majority of the meanings children express in their two-word utterance, even children acquiring different languages. These meanings, with examples drawn from many different children, are listed in Box 6.2. according to brown, the child’s grammar at the two-word stage is a vehicle for expressing a small set of semantic relationships. The particular semantic relationships expressed at this stage reflect the level of cognitive development typical of children of this age. The particular words, of course, reflect the language the children have been exposed to. So, according to this view, cognitive development provides the categories of early combinatorial speech, and input in the target language provides the lexical items that fill those categories.
Three-word and more combinations
For some children, the two-word stage lasts for several months. For other children, the two-word stage is brief and barely identifiable as a separate stage before utterances with three and more word are produced. Of course, children continue to produce one- and two-word utterances. What changes with development is the upper limit on the length of utterance children can produce. Box 6.3 is a sample of all the three-word utterances produced by one 2-year-old child in the course of having breakfast. This child had just started to put three words together; most utterances were one or two words long and only one was longer than three words. These sentences illustrate several typical characteristics of children’s speech at this stage.
When children start to put three words together, many of the meanings expressed are combinations of the relational meaning in two-word combinations, with the redundant terms mentioned only once. For example: the sentence “I watch it” could be described as a combinations of “agent + action” (I watch) and “action + object” (watch it). Also, children’s utterances at this stage are almost exclusively about the here and now. Even 3-year-old rarely mention absent or imaginary event. However, it is important to point out that these generalizations do not hold perfectly. Not all meanings expressed fit the description of combinations of the two-word relational meanings, and not all utterances refer to the here and now. For example, one of the sentence in box 6.3 refers to an absent person, daddy. (for a more elaborate description of the meaning in early multiword speech, )
In terms of structure, two characteristic of these early multiword sentence are noteworthy. First, early sentence tend to be imperatives and affirmative, declarative statements, as opposed to negations, or questions. Second, certain types of words and bound morphemes consistently tend to be missing. Because the omission of certain words and morphemes makes children’s utterances sound like the sentences adults used to produce when writing telegrams in which the sender paid by the word, children’s speech. (telegrams have been replaced by overnight mail and e-mail, but the term has remained). The telegraphic quality of children’s early speech has been the focus of considerable research attention.
The telegraphic nature of early combinatorial speech
The words included in the early sentences of children acquiring English are primarily words from the major grammatical categories of nouns, verbs and adjectives. The missing elements are determiners, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, and the bound morphemes that go on the ends of nouns and verbs. These missing forms are called grammatical morphemes because the use these words and word endings is tied to particular grammatical entities. For example, the and a can appear only at the beginning of a noun phrase; ing is typically attached to a verb. Although these grammatical elements do carry some meaning, they seem to carry less meaning than do the nouns and verbs in the utterance. Rather, their primary function is structural; they are “the linguistic hooks and eyes that hold sentences together”.
Exactly why these grammatical functors (i.e., function words) and inflections are omitted is a matter of some debate. One possibility is that the omitted words and morphemes are not produced because they are not essential to meaning. Children probably have cognitive limitations on the length of utterance they can produce, in dependent of their grammatical knowledge. Given such length limitations, they may sensibly leave out the least important parts. It is also true that the omitted words tend to be words that are not stressed in adult’s utterances, and children may be leaving out unstressed elements. Some have also suggested that children’s underlying knowledge at this point does not include the grammatical categories that goven the use of the omitted forms, although other evidence suggests it does. For example, 18-month-olds, but not 15-month-olds, listen longer to passages that use grammatical functors correctly than to passages that are identical except that the grammatical functors are incorrect. We will return later in this chapter to the question of what grammatical knowledge underlines children’s early sentences.

0/5000
Dari: -
Ke: -
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1: [Salinan]
Disalin!
Early multiword utterancesThe first evidence of grammatical knowledge in production comes when children combine units of the language in a single utterance. For children acquiring English, the units are typically words, and, thus, the beginning of structured speech is marked by the appearance of multiword utterances. However, many children produce transitional forms that can blur the distinction between the one-word and two-word stages of language production.The transition from one-word speechVertical constructions. Before they produce two-word utterances, some children utter successive single-word utterances that seem to be related to each other in meaning in the same way that the words in a two-word utterance are. For example: one little girl who woke up with an eye infection pointed to her eye and said, “ow. Eye”. In this case, each word had the same intonation contour as if it had been said by itself, and the two words were separated by a pause. However, the expressed meaning clearly involved a relation between the two words. At this stage, children also sometimes produce. A single-word utterance that builds on someone else’s previous utterance. Scollon (1979) called these sequences “vertical constructions,”because when researchers transcribe what children say, they write each utterance on a new line. A two-word sentence, in contrast, would be a horizontal construction and would be written on the same line in transcription.Unanalyzed word combinations and “word + jargon” combinations. There are other transitional forms besides these vertical constructions. Most children have at least some multiword phrases in their repertoires that have been memorized as unanalyzed wholes; these phrases therefore do not reflect the development of the ability to combine words. I want and I don’t know , are examples of unanalyzed wholes common in children’s early language. Some children-typically those who have been producing long strings of jargon since their babbling days-produce utterances longer than one word by inserting one clear word into what is otherwise an incomprehensible babble sequence. The result can sound something like “mumble mumble mumble cookie?” to further complicate matters, all these transitional phenomena may exist simultaneously, so that one child’s first multiword utterances may include some rote-learned wholes, some “jargon + word” combinations, and some truly productive word combinations.Two-word combinationsThe beginning of a productive system. At some point, productive word combinations begin. We say that children have a productive system when they use the words in their vocabularies in different combinations. A sample of the two-word utterances produced by one child during a 1-month period is presented in Box 6.1. the variety of utterances in this box suggests that the boy who produced these utterances was able to combine the words in his limited vocabulary productively. For example, he could say that anything is big or little; he could say that daddy and Andrew walk and sleep. (and you would predict from the appearance of the utterance “Daddy sit” on this list that the child could also produce “Andrew sit”). It’s also a good bet-and crucial to the claim that the child has a productive system-that these utterances were not just reduced imitations of sentences he had heard adults produce. The test would be to introduce this little boy to a new person, Emily. If his linguistic knowledge were productive, he should immediately be able to produce “Emily sit”. “Emily walk”, and so on.Meanings in two-word utterances. Although we say that children’s systems are productive when children can put words together in novel combinations, children’s first word combinations are limited in the range of relational meanings expressed. (the term relational meaning refers to the relation between the referents of the words in a word combination. So, for example, in the utterance, “my teddy”, the word my refers to the speaker and the word teddy refers to a stuffed animal. The relational meaning is that of possession).Roger brown proposed a list of eight relational meanings that he claimed accounted for the majority of the meanings children express in their two-word utterance, even children acquiring different languages. These meanings, with examples drawn from many different children, are listed in Box 6.2. according to brown, the child’s grammar at the two-word stage is a vehicle for expressing a small set of semantic relationships. The particular semantic relationships expressed at this stage reflect the level of cognitive development typical of children of this age. The particular words, of course, reflect the language the children have been exposed to. So, according to this view, cognitive development provides the categories of early combinatorial speech, and input in the target language provides the lexical items that fill those categories.Three-word and more combinationsFor some children, the two-word stage lasts for several months. For other children, the two-word stage is brief and barely identifiable as a separate stage before utterances with three and more word are produced. Of course, children continue to produce one- and two-word utterances. What changes with development is the upper limit on the length of utterance children can produce. Box 6.3 is a sample of all the three-word utterances produced by one 2-year-old child in the course of having breakfast. This child had just started to put three words together; most utterances were one or two words long and only one was longer than three words. These sentences illustrate several typical characteristics of children’s speech at this stage.When children start to put three words together, many of the meanings expressed are combinations of the relational meaning in two-word combinations, with the redundant terms mentioned only once. For example: the sentence “I watch it” could be described as a combinations of “agent + action” (I watch) and “action + object” (watch it). Also, children’s utterances at this stage are almost exclusively about the here and now. Even 3-year-old rarely mention absent or imaginary event. However, it is important to point out that these generalizations do not hold perfectly. Not all meanings expressed fit the description of combinations of the two-word relational meanings, and not all utterances refer to the here and now. For example, one of the sentence in box 6.3 refers to an absent person, daddy. (for a more elaborate description of the meaning in early multiword speech, )In terms of structure, two characteristic of these early multiword sentence are noteworthy. First, early sentence tend to be imperatives and affirmative, declarative statements, as opposed to negations, or questions. Second, certain types of words and bound morphemes consistently tend to be missing. Because the omission of certain words and morphemes makes children’s utterances sound like the sentences adults used to produce when writing telegrams in which the sender paid by the word, children’s speech. (telegrams have been replaced by overnight mail and e-mail, but the term has remained). The telegraphic quality of children’s early speech has been the focus of considerable research attention.The telegraphic nature of early combinatorial speechThe words included in the early sentences of children acquiring English are primarily words from the major grammatical categories of nouns, verbs and adjectives. The missing elements are determiners, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, and the bound morphemes that go on the ends of nouns and verbs. These missing forms are called grammatical morphemes because the use these words and word endings is tied to particular grammatical entities. For example, the and a can appear only at the beginning of a noun phrase; ing is typically attached to a verb. Although these grammatical elements do carry some meaning, they seem to carry less meaning than do the nouns and verbs in the utterance. Rather, their primary function is structural; they are “the linguistic hooks and eyes that hold sentences together”.Exactly why these grammatical functors (i.e., function words) and inflections are omitted is a matter of some debate. One possibility is that the omitted words and morphemes are not produced because they are not essential to meaning. Children probably have cognitive limitations on the length of utterance they can produce, in dependent of their grammatical knowledge. Given such length limitations, they may sensibly leave out the least important parts. It is also true that the omitted words tend to be words that are not stressed in adult’s utterances, and children may be leaving out unstressed elements. Some have also suggested that children’s underlying knowledge at this point does not include the grammatical categories that goven the use of the omitted forms, although other evidence suggests it does. For example, 18-month-olds, but not 15-month-olds, listen longer to passages that use grammatical functors correctly than to passages that are identical except that the grammatical functors are incorrect. We will return later in this chapter to the question of what grammatical knowledge underlines children’s early sentences.

Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:[Salinan]
Disalin!
Berbentuk frase awal ucapan
Bukti pertama pengetahuan tata bahasa dalam produksi datang ketika anak-anak menggabungkan unit bahasa dalam ucapan tunggal. Untuk anak-anak memperoleh bahasa Inggris, unit biasanya kata-kata, dan, dengan demikian, awal pidato terstruktur ditandai dengan munculnya ucapan berbentuk frase. Namun, banyak anak-anak menghasilkan bentuk transisi yang dapat mengaburkan perbedaan antara tahap satu-kata dan dua kata produksi bahasa.
Transisi dari satu kata sambutannya
Vertikal konstruksi. Sebelum mereka menghasilkan ucapan dua kata, beberapa anak mengucapkan berturut ucapan single-kata yang tampaknya berhubungan satu sama lain dalam arti dengan cara yang sama bahwa kata-kata dalam ucapan dua kata yang. Sebagai contoh: seorang gadis kecil yang terbangun dengan infeksi mata menunjuk matanya dan berkata, "ow. Mata ". Dalam hal ini, setiap kata memiliki kontur intonasi yang sama seolah-olah itu telah mengatakan dengan sendirinya, dan dua kata yang dipisahkan oleh jeda. Namun, makna yang diungkapkan secara jelas melibatkan hubungan antara dua kata. Pada tahap ini, anak-anak juga kadang-kadang menghasilkan. Sebuah ucapan tunggal kata yang dibangun di atas ucapan orang lain sebelumnya. Scollon (1979) disebut urutan ini "konstruksi vertikal," karena ketika peneliti menuliskan apa yang dikatakan anak-anak, mereka menulis setiap ucapan pada baris baru. Sebuah kalimat dua kata, sebaliknya, akan menjadi konstruksi horizontal dan akan ditulis pada baris yang sama di transkripsi.
Kombinasi kata belum dianalisis dan "kata + jargon" kombinasi. Ada bentuk peralihan lain selain ini konstruksi vertikal. Kebanyakan anak memiliki setidaknya beberapa frase berbentuk frase dalam repertoar mereka yang telah hafal sebagai keutuhan belum dianalisis; frase ini karena itu tidak mencerminkan perkembangan kemampuan untuk menggabungkan kata-kata. Saya ingin dan saya tidak tahu, adalah contoh dari keutuhan belum dianalisis umum dalam bahasa awal anak-anak. Beberapa anak-biasanya mereka yang telah memproduksi string panjang jargon sejak mengoceh mereka hari-menghasilkan ucapan lebih dari satu kata dengan menyisipkan satu kata yang jelas dalam apa yang sebaliknya urutan celoteh dimengerti. Hasilnya bisa terdengar sesuatu seperti "bergumam kue bergumam bergumam?" Untuk lebih rumit, semua fenomena transisi ini mungkin ada secara bersamaan, sehingga ucapan-ucapan berbentuk frase pertama anak dapat mencakup beberapa keutuhan hafalan-belajar, beberapa "jargon + kata" kombinasi, dan beberapa kombinasi kata yang benar-benar produktif.
Dua-kata kombinasi
Awal sistem produktif. Di beberapa titik, kombinasi kata produktif dimulai. Kami mengatakan bahwa anak-anak memiliki sistem produktif ketika mereka menggunakan kata-kata dalam kosakata mereka dalam kombinasi yang berbeda. Sebuah contoh dari ucapan-ucapan dua kata yang dihasilkan oleh satu anak selama periode 1 bulan disajikan dalam Kotak 6.1. berbagai ucapan di kotak ini menunjukkan bahwa anak yang dihasilkan ucapan ini mampu menggabungkan kata-kata dalam kosa kata yang terbatas produktif. Misalnya, ia bisa mengatakan bahwa ada sesuatu yang besar atau kecil; ia bisa mengatakan bahwa ayah dan Andrew berjalan dan tidur. (dan Anda akan memprediksi dari penampilan ucapan "Daddy duduk" di daftar ini bahwa anak juga bisa menghasilkan "Andrew duduk"). Ini juga baik taruhan-dan penting untuk klaim bahwa anak memiliki sistem-yang produktif ucapan-ucapan ini tidak hanya mengurangi imitasi kalimat ia mendengar orang dewasa menghasilkan. Tes akan memperkenalkan anak kecil ini ke orang baru, Emily. Jika pengetahuan linguistik nya yang produktif, ia harus segera mampu menghasilkan "Emily duduk". "Emily berjalan", dan sebagainya.
Makna dalam ucapan dua kata. Meskipun kita mengatakan bahwa sistem anak-anak yang produktif ketika anak-anak dapat menempatkan kata-kata bersama-sama dalam kombinasi baru, kombinasi kata pertama anak-anak terbatas dalam kisaran makna relasional menyatakan. (arti relasional merujuk pada hubungan antara referen dari kata-kata dalam kombinasi kata. Jadi, misalnya, dalam ucapan, "saya teddy", kata saya mengacu pada speaker dan kata teddy mengacu boneka binatang . Arti relasional adalah bahwa kepemilikan).
Roger coklat mengusulkan daftar delapan makna relasional bahwa ia mengaku menyumbang sebagian besar anak-anak mengekspresikan makna di ucapan dua kata mereka, bahkan anak-anak memperoleh bahasa yang berbeda. Makna ini, dengan contoh-contoh yang diambil dari banyak anak yang berbeda, tercantum dalam Kotak 6.2. menurut coklat, tata bahasa anak pada tahap dua kata adalah kendaraan untuk mengekspresikan satu set kecil hubungan semantik. Hubungan semantik tertentu menyatakan pada tahap ini mencerminkan tingkat perkembangan kognitif khas anak-anak usia ini. Kata-kata tertentu, tentu saja, mencerminkan bahasa anak-anak telah terkena. Jadi, menurut pandangan ini, perkembangan kognitif memberikan kategori awal pidato kombinasi, dan masukan dalam bahasa target memberikan item leksikal yang mengisi kategori tersebut.
Tiga-kata dan lebih kombinasi
Untuk beberapa anak, tahap dua kata berlangsung selama beberapa bulan. Untuk anak-anak lain, tahap dua kata singkat dan nyaris tidak dikenali sebagai tahap terpisah sebelum ucapan dengan tiga dan lebih kata yang dihasilkan. Tentu saja, anak-anak terus menghasilkan ucapan satu dan dua kata. Apa yang berubah dengan pembangunan adalah batas atas pada panjang anak ucapan dapat menghasilkan. Kotak 6.3 adalah contoh dari semua ucapan tiga kata yang dihasilkan oleh satu anak 2 tahun dalam perjalanan setelah sarapan. Anak ini baru saja mulai untuk menempatkan tiga kata bersama-sama; kebanyakan ujaran satu atau dua kata yang panjang dan hanya satu yang lebih lama dari tiga kata. Kalimat-kalimat ini menggambarkan beberapa karakteristik khas pidato anak-anak pada tahap ini.
Ketika anak-anak mulai untuk menempatkan tiga kata bersama-sama, banyak makna yang diungkapkan adalah kombinasi dari makna relasional dalam kombinasi dua kata, dengan syarat berlebihan disebutkan hanya sekali. Sebagai contoh: kalimat "Saya menonton" dapat digambarkan sebagai kombinasi dari "agen + action" (saya menonton) dan "tindakan + objek" (menonton). Juga, ucapan anak-anak pada tahap ini hampir secara eksklusif tentang di sini dan sekarang. Bahkan 3 tahun jarang menyebutkan acara absen atau imajiner. Namun, penting untuk menunjukkan bahwa generalisasi ini tidak tahan dengan sempurna. Tidak semua makna yang diungkapkan sesuai dengan deskripsi kombinasi dari dua kata makna relasional, dan tidak semua ucapan mengacu pada di sini dan sekarang. Sebagai contoh, salah satu kalimat dalam kotak 6.3 mengacu kepada orang yang tidak hadir, daddy. (untuk penjelasan lebih rumit dari makna pada awal pidato berbentuk frase)
Dalam hal struktur, dua karakteristik kalimat ini berbentuk frase awal patut dicatat. Pertama, kalimat awal cenderung imperatif dan afirmatif, pernyataan deklaratif, sebagai lawan negations, atau pertanyaan. Kedua, jenis tertentu dari kata-kata dan morfem terikat secara konsisten cenderung hilang. Karena kelalaian kata dan morfem tertentu membuat ucapan anak-anak terdengar seperti orang dewasa kalimat yang digunakan untuk menghasilkan saat menulis telegram di mana pengirim dibayar oleh kata, ucapan anak-anak. (telegram telah digantikan oleh surat semalam dan e-mail, tetapi istilah tetap). Kualitas telegraf pidato awal anak-anak telah menjadi fokus perhatian penelitian yang cukup.
Sifat telegraf dari awal pidato kombinasi
Kata-kata yang termasuk dalam kalimat awal anak memperoleh bahasa Inggris terutama kata-kata dari kategori tata bahasa utama nomina, verba dan kata sifat. Unsur-unsur yang hilang adalah penentu, preposisi, kata kerja bantu, dan morfem terikat yang pergi pada ujung kata benda dan kata kerja. Bentuk-bentuk yang hilang disebut morfem gramatikal karena penggunaan kata-kata dan akhiran terkait dengan entitas tata bahasa tertentu. Sebagai contoh, dan dapat muncul hanya pada awal frase kata benda; ing biasanya melekat pada kata kerja. Meskipun elemen ini tata bahasa tidak membawa makna, mereka tampaknya membawa sedikit arti dari melakukan nomina dan verba dalam ucapan. Sebaliknya, fungsi utama mereka adalah struktural; mereka adalah "kait linguistik dan mata yang terus kalimat bersama-sama".
Persis mengapa functors tata bahasa (yaitu, kata-kata fungsi) dan infleksi dihilangkan adalah soal beberapa perdebatan. Salah satu kemungkinan adalah bahwa kata-kata dihilangkan dan morfem tidak diproduksi karena mereka tidak penting untuk arti. Anak-anak mungkin memiliki keterbatasan kognitif pada panjang ucapan mereka dapat menghasilkan, di tergantung pengetahuan tata bahasa mereka. Mengingat keterbatasan panjang tersebut, mereka mungkin bijaksana meninggalkan bagian paling penting. Hal ini juga benar bahwa kata-kata dihilangkan cenderung kata-kata yang tidak ditekankan dalam ucapan-ucapan orang dewasa, dan anak-anak dapat meninggalkan unsur-unsur tanpa tekanan. Beberapa juga telah menyarankan bahwa pengetahuan yang mendasari anak-anak pada saat ini tidak termasuk kategori gramatikal yang Goven penggunaan bentuk dihilangkan, meskipun bukti lain menunjukkan hal itu. Sebagai contoh, 18-bulan-olds, tapi tidak 15 bulan-olds, mendengarkan lebih lama untuk bagian yang menggunakan functors gramatikal benar daripada bagian yang sama kecuali bahwa functors tata bahasa tidak benar. Kami akan kembali nanti dalam bab ini untuk pertanyaan tentang apa pengetahuan tata bahasa menggarisbawahi kalimat awal anak-anak.

Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
 
Bahasa lainnya
Dukungan alat penerjemahan: Afrikans, Albania, Amhara, Arab, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahasa Indonesia, Basque, Belanda, Belarussia, Bengali, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Burma, Cebuano, Ceko, Chichewa, China, Cina Tradisional, Denmark, Deteksi bahasa, Esperanto, Estonia, Farsi, Finlandia, Frisia, Gaelig, Gaelik Skotlandia, Galisia, Georgia, Gujarati, Hausa, Hawaii, Hindi, Hmong, Ibrani, Igbo, Inggris, Islan, Italia, Jawa, Jepang, Jerman, Kannada, Katala, Kazak, Khmer, Kinyarwanda, Kirghiz, Klingon, Korea, Korsika, Kreol Haiti, Kroat, Kurdi, Laos, Latin, Latvia, Lituania, Luksemburg, Magyar, Makedonia, Malagasi, Malayalam, Malta, Maori, Marathi, Melayu, Mongol, Nepal, Norsk, Odia (Oriya), Pashto, Polandia, Portugis, Prancis, Punjabi, Rumania, Rusia, Samoa, Serb, Sesotho, Shona, Sindhi, Sinhala, Slovakia, Slovenia, Somali, Spanyol, Sunda, Swahili, Swensk, Tagalog, Tajik, Tamil, Tatar, Telugu, Thai, Turki, Turkmen, Ukraina, Urdu, Uyghur, Uzbek, Vietnam, Wales, Xhosa, Yiddi, Yoruba, Yunani, Zulu, Bahasa terjemahan.

Copyright ©2024 I Love Translation. All reserved.

E-mail: