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Early multiword utterancesThe first evidence of grammatical knowledge in production comes when children combine units of the language in a single utterance. For children acquiring English, the units are typically words, and, thus, the beginning of structured speech is marked by the appearance of multiword utterances. However, many children produce transitional forms that can blur the distinction between the one-word and two-word stages of language production.The transition from one-word speechVertical constructions. Before they produce two-word utterances, some children utter successive single-word utterances that seem to be related to each other in meaning in the same way that the words in a two-word utterance are. For example: one little girl who woke up with an eye infection pointed to her eye and said, “ow. Eye”. In this case, each word had the same intonation contour as if it had been said by itself, and the two words were separated by a pause. However, the expressed meaning clearly involved a relation between the two words. At this stage, children also sometimes produce. A single-word utterance that builds on someone else’s previous utterance. Scollon (1979) called these sequences “vertical constructions,”because when researchers transcribe what children say, they write each utterance on a new line. A two-word sentence, in contrast, would be a horizontal construction and would be written on the same line in transcription.Unanalyzed word combinations and “word + jargon” combinations. There are other transitional forms besides these vertical constructions. Most children have at least some multiword phrases in their repertoires that have been memorized as unanalyzed wholes; these phrases therefore do not reflect the development of the ability to combine words. I want and I don’t know , are examples of unanalyzed wholes common in children’s early language. Some children-typically those who have been producing long strings of jargon since their babbling days-produce utterances longer than one word by inserting one clear word into what is otherwise an incomprehensible babble sequence. The result can sound something like “mumble mumble mumble cookie?” to further complicate matters, all these transitional phenomena may exist simultaneously, so that one child’s first multiword utterances may include some rote-learned wholes, some “jargon + word” combinations, and some truly productive word combinations.Two-word combinationsThe beginning of a productive system. At some point, productive word combinations begin. We say that children have a productive system when they use the words in their vocabularies in different combinations. A sample of the two-word utterances produced by one child during a 1-month period is presented in Box 6.1. the variety of utterances in this box suggests that the boy who produced these utterances was able to combine the words in his limited vocabulary productively. For example, he could say that anything is big or little; he could say that daddy and Andrew walk and sleep. (and you would predict from the appearance of the utterance “Daddy sit” on this list that the child could also produce “Andrew sit”). It’s also a good bet-and crucial to the claim that the child has a productive system-that these utterances were not just reduced imitations of sentences he had heard adults produce. The test would be to introduce this little boy to a new person, Emily. If his linguistic knowledge were productive, he should immediately be able to produce “Emily sit”. “Emily walk”, and so on.Meanings in two-word utterances. Although we say that children’s systems are productive when children can put words together in novel combinations, children’s first word combinations are limited in the range of relational meanings expressed. (the term relational meaning refers to the relation between the referents of the words in a word combination. So, for example, in the utterance, “my teddy”, the word my refers to the speaker and the word teddy refers to a stuffed animal. The relational meaning is that of possession).Roger brown proposed a list of eight relational meanings that he claimed accounted for the majority of the meanings children express in their two-word utterance, even children acquiring different languages. These meanings, with examples drawn from many different children, are listed in Box 6.2. according to brown, the child’s grammar at the two-word stage is a vehicle for expressing a small set of semantic relationships. The particular semantic relationships expressed at this stage reflect the level of cognitive development typical of children of this age. The particular words, of course, reflect the language the children have been exposed to. So, according to this view, cognitive development provides the categories of early combinatorial speech, and input in the target language provides the lexical items that fill those categories.Three-word and more combinationsFor some children, the two-word stage lasts for several months. For other children, the two-word stage is brief and barely identifiable as a separate stage before utterances with three and more word are produced. Of course, children continue to produce one- and two-word utterances. What changes with development is the upper limit on the length of utterance children can produce. Box 6.3 is a sample of all the three-word utterances produced by one 2-year-old child in the course of having breakfast. This child had just started to put three words together; most utterances were one or two words long and only one was longer than three words. These sentences illustrate several typical characteristics of children’s speech at this stage.When children start to put three words together, many of the meanings expressed are combinations of the relational meaning in two-word combinations, with the redundant terms mentioned only once. For example: the sentence “I watch it” could be described as a combinations of “agent + action” (I watch) and “action + object” (watch it). Also, children’s utterances at this stage are almost exclusively about the here and now. Even 3-year-old rarely mention absent or imaginary event. However, it is important to point out that these generalizations do not hold perfectly. Not all meanings expressed fit the description of combinations of the two-word relational meanings, and not all utterances refer to the here and now. For example, one of the sentence in box 6.3 refers to an absent person, daddy. (for a more elaborate description of the meaning in early multiword speech, )In terms of structure, two characteristic of these early multiword sentence are noteworthy. First, early sentence tend to be imperatives and affirmative, declarative statements, as opposed to negations, or questions. Second, certain types of words and bound morphemes consistently tend to be missing. Because the omission of certain words and morphemes makes children’s utterances sound like the sentences adults used to produce when writing telegrams in which the sender paid by the word, children’s speech. (telegrams have been replaced by overnight mail and e-mail, but the term has remained). The telegraphic quality of children’s early speech has been the focus of considerable research attention.The telegraphic nature of early combinatorial speechThe words included in the early sentences of children acquiring English are primarily words from the major grammatical categories of nouns, verbs and adjectives. The missing elements are determiners, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, and the bound morphemes that go on the ends of nouns and verbs. These missing forms are called grammatical morphemes because the use these words and word endings is tied to particular grammatical entities. For example, the and a can appear only at the beginning of a noun phrase; ing is typically attached to a verb. Although these grammatical elements do carry some meaning, they seem to carry less meaning than do the nouns and verbs in the utterance. Rather, their primary function is structural; they are “the linguistic hooks and eyes that hold sentences together”.Exactly why these grammatical functors (i.e., function words) and inflections are omitted is a matter of some debate. One possibility is that the omitted words and morphemes are not produced because they are not essential to meaning. Children probably have cognitive limitations on the length of utterance they can produce, in dependent of their grammatical knowledge. Given such length limitations, they may sensibly leave out the least important parts. It is also true that the omitted words tend to be words that are not stressed in adult’s utterances, and children may be leaving out unstressed elements. Some have also suggested that children’s underlying knowledge at this point does not include the grammatical categories that goven the use of the omitted forms, although other evidence suggests it does. For example, 18-month-olds, but not 15-month-olds, listen longer to passages that use grammatical functors correctly than to passages that are identical except that the grammatical functors are incorrect. We will return later in this chapter to the question of what grammatical knowledge underlines children’s early sentences.
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