In recent years, a number of West and Central African countries began  terjemahan - In recent years, a number of West and Central African countries began  Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

In recent years, a number of West a

In recent years, a number of West and Central African countries began introducing economic
incentives for improved forest management. In the Congo in newly opened areas for logging and in
areas where existing concessions are canceled or returned, concessions are allocated by bidding.
Bidders submit a bid per cubic meter for the annual volume available for cutting (Egli, 1990). Côte d'Ivoire has also introduced bidding for new logging concessions and Ghana has agreed to do the same (World Bank, 1988). The Côte d'Ivoire government in early 1991 auctioned log export rights: 30 out of 40 registered bidders participated, 20 were successful and the average sale price was 25% higher than the administratively set price (Chausse, 1991). When there is sufficient competition, bidding ensures: (a) that concessions go to the most efficient and productive operation; and (b) that the government or community that owns the resource extracts the maximum amount of revenues (rents). The bidding price also provides a market based indicator for adjusting forest fees to their correct levels—even for concessions that cannot be allocated by bidding.
The system could be improved further by: (a) replacing logging concessions with forest management concessions; (b) using sealed tender; (c) including technical competence among the allocation criteria; (d) entrusting the bidding procedure to an independent auctioneer; (e) opening the concession bid to local communities and NGOs as well as local and international firms; (f) auctioning the concessions in small but manageable units and making them transferable; and (g) making concessions sufficiently long to internalize the value of the next crop, with a review every five years to ensure satisfactory performance (Grut et al., 1991).
Economic incentives may also be introduced to support the regulation and management of
concessions. For example, pre-payment of forest fees or deposit of refundable performance bonds
may help avoid logging damage and encourage regeneration. An interesting performance or
compliance incentive is the “interim concession license” (Lettre d'Intention) introduced in Zaire in 1984 to weed out speculators acquiring large concessions without making the necessary investments in forest inventory and efficient harvesting and processing. The interim license requires the satisfactory completion of 20 elements (specified in the application file) before it can be converted into a full concession license. If the concessionaire does not make the necessary investments within three years, the interim license is canceled. Since the applicants are required to pay in advance for inventories of their prospective concession areas, they are more likely to take their responsibilities seriously.
Another innovative incentive is the “deforestation tax” levied on land clearing in public forests by the Central African Republic. It ranges from US $170 to US $500 per ha, depending on the type of public forest land (Egli, 1990). To the extent that the deforestation tax reflects the foregone non-timber values from logging, it acts as an economic incentive to reduce deforestation (Grut, 1991).
Water Resource Management: From Water Pricing in China to Water Rights in Chile From India to Morocco to Botswana, free or heavily subsidized irrigation water obstructs market signals, encouraging farmers to use the resource beyond its economic (or agricultural) optimum and
stifling incentives to invest in improvements and maintenance of existing dams that are often plagued by poor drainage and inefficient distribution systems. In Bangladesh, Nepal, and Thailand, total costs were at least 1000% of revenues collected. Cheap water often becomes a substitute for other inputs. Over-irrigation by farmers nearest to the water source leads to water logging, salinization, and alkalization. Meanwhile, those less conveniently
located are forced to rely on sporadic and sparse water. A study of Pakistan's irrigation systems found that 73% of farmers surveyed complained of insufficient water supplies, while farmers close to the water source of the same system were overwatering. The consequences are reduced crop yields, loss of irrigated lands, and increased salt loadings of return flows and aquifers. Downstream effects include the erosion and siltation of estuaries and deltas.
Water subsidies encourage farmers to treat water as an abundant resource when it is in fact scarce. With no water rights, and no effective water user associations or other mechanisms to allocate water efficiently, water scarcity does not register. Indeed, water charges do not reflect the increasing opportunity cost due to increasing scarcity. As long as farmers do not bear the true cost of water, however, they will be unlikely to appreciate its scarcity or the problems that arise with overuse. Until they receive clear market signals indicating otherwise, they will continue to use water wastefully. Beyond the less apparent economic costs, there is an absence of effective financial cost recovery mechanisms. Even at low maintenance levels only a fraction of operation and maintenance costs are covered by the revenues collected by water users. For example, revenues cover 20% of costs in Bangladesh, 27% in Thailand, and 60% in Nepal. If capital costs are included, water charges often cover only 10% to 20% of costs. It is ironic that capitalist economies such as those of Pakistan and Thailand failed to price irrigation water, while the centrally planned socialist economy of China did not.
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Dalam beberapa tahun terakhir, sejumlah negara-negara Barat dan tengah Afrika mulai memperkenalkan ekonomiinsentif bagi pengelolaan hutan yang ditingkatkan. Di Kongo di daerah-daerah yang baru dibuka bagi penebangan dan dalamdaerah mana area konsesi dibatalkan atau kembali, konsesi yang dialokasikan dengan Penawaran.Penawar mengajukan penawaran per meter kubik volume tahunan tersedia untuk memotong (Egli, 1990). Pantai Gading juga telah memperkenalkan penawaran untuk konsesi penebangan baru dan Ghana telah setuju untuk melakukan sama (Bank Dunia, 1988). Pemerintah d'Ivoire Côte di awal 1991 dilelang log ekspor hak: 30 dari 40 terdaftar penawar berpartisipasi, 20 sukses dan harga jual rata-rata 25% lebih tinggi dari harga secara administratif set (Chausse, 1991). Ketika ada cukup kompetisi, Penawaran menjamin: (a) bahwa konsesi pergi ke yang paling efisien dan produktif operasi; dan (b) bahwa pemerintah atau masyarakat yang memiliki sumber daya yang ekstrak jumlah maksimum pendapatan (sewa). Harga Penawaran juga menyediakan indikator berbasis pasar untuk menyesuaikan hutan biaya tingkat benar mereka — bahkan untuk konsesi yang tidak dapat dialokasikan oleh Penawaran.Sistem dapat ditingkatkan lebih lanjut oleh: HPH () menggantikan dengan konsesi manajemen hutan; (b) menggunakan disegel tender; (c) termasuk kompetensi teknis antara kriteria alokasi; (d) mempercayakan prosedur penawaran untuk lelang independen; (e) membuka konsesi tawaran untuk masyarakat lokal dan LSM serta perusahaan lokal dan internasional; (f) melelang konsesi di unit kecil tapi mudah dikelola dan membuat mereka dipindahtangankan; dan (g) membuat konsesi yang cukup panjang untuk menginternalisasi nilai tanaman berikutnya, dengan review setiap lima tahun untuk memastikan kinerja yang memuaskan (Grut et al., 1991).Insentif ekonomi juga akan diperkenalkan untuk mendukung peraturan dan manajemenkonsesi. Sebagai contoh, hutan biaya pra-pembayaran atau deposit dapat dikembalikan kinerja obligasidapat membantu menghindari kerusakan penebangan dan mendorong regenerasi. Kinerja yang menarik ataukepatuhan insentif adalah "sementara konsesi lisensi" (Lettre d'Intention) diperkenalkan di Zaire pada tahun 1984 untuk menyingkirkan spekulan memperoleh konsesi besar tanpa membuat investasi yang diperlukan dalam inventarisasi hutan dan efisien panen dan pengolahan. SIM sementara membutuhkan penyelesaian 20 elemen (ditentukan di file aplikasi) sebelum dapat dikonversi menjadi lisensi penuh konsesi. Jika HPH tidak membuat investasi yang diperlukan dalam tiga tahun, sementara lisensi dibatalkan. Karena para pelamar diharuskan membayar terlebih dahulu untuk persediaan area konsesi calon mereka, mereka lebih mungkin untuk mengambil tanggung jawab mereka serius.Insentif inovatif yang lain adalah "deforestasi pajak" dikenakan pada land clearing di hutan rakyat oleh Republik Afrika Tengah. Ini berkisar dari US $170 sampai US $500 per ha, tergantung pada jenis tanah hutan publik (Egli, 1990). Sejauh bahwa pajak deforestasi mencerminkan nilai-nilai non-kayu yang terdahulu dari penebangan kayu, ia bertindak sebagai insentif ekonomi untuk mengurangi deforestasi (Grut, 1991).Pengelolaan sumber daya air: Dari air harga di Cina untuk hak-hak air di Chili dari India ke Maroko untuk Botswana, air irigasi gratis atau berat bersubsidi menghalangi pasar sinyal, mendorong petani untuk menggunakan sumber luar yang optimal ekonomi (atau pertanian) danmencekik insentif untuk berinvestasi dalam perbaikan dan pemeliharaan bendungan yang ada yang sering diganggu oleh sistem distribusi yang tidak efisien dan drainase yang buruk. Di Bangladesh, Nepal dan Thailand, total biaya yang sekurang-kurangnya 1000% dari pendapatan yang dikumpulkan. Murah air sering menjadi pengganti input lainnya. Irigasi yang berlebihan oleh petani terdekat dengan sumber air yang menyebabkan kegenangan air, salinization, dan alkalization. Sementara itu, orang-orang kurang nyamanTerletak terpaksa mengandalkan air sporadis dan jarang. Studi sistem irigasi Pakistan menemukan bahwa 73% dari petani yang disurvei mengeluhkan kurangnya pasokan air, sementara petani dekat dengan sumber air sistem yang sama yang overwatering. Konsekuensi adalah hasil panen berkurang, hilangnya lahan irigasi, dan peningkatan garam tas mengalir kembali dan akuifer. Efek hilir termasuk erosi dan pengendapan di muara sungai dan Delta.Subsidi air mendorong petani untuk mengobati air sebagai sumber daya yang berlimpah ketika itu sebenarnya langka. Tidak ada hak air, dan tidak efektif air pengguna Asosiasi atau mekanisme lain untuk mengalokasikan air secara efisien, kelangkaan air tidak mendaftar. Memang, biaya air tidak mencerminkan meningkatnya kemungkinan biaya karena meningkatnya kelangkaan. Sebagai petani tidak menghasilkan biaya sebenarnya dari air, namun, mereka akan mungkin untuk menghargai kelangkaan atau masalah yang timbul dengan berlebihan. Sampai mereka menerima sinyal pasar jelas menunjukkan sebaliknya, mereka akan terus menggunakan air wastefully. Luar biaya ekonomi yang kurang jelas, ada ketiadaan mekanisme pemulihan efektif biaya keuangan. Bahkan pada tingkat rendah pemeliharaan hanya sebagian kecil dari operasi dan biaya pemeliharaan ditutupi oleh penghasilan yang dikumpulkan oleh air pengguna. Sebagai contoh, pendapatan cover 20% dari biaya di Bangladesh, 27% di Thailand, dan 60% di Nepal. Jika biaya modal disertakan, biaya air sering mencakup hanya 10% sampai 20% dari biaya. Ini ironis bahwa ekonomi kapitalis seperti Pakistan dan Thailand gagal untuk air irigasi harga, sementara ekonomi Sosialis yang terencana sentral Cina tidak.
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Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:[Salinan]
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In recent years, a number of West and Central African countries began introducing economic
incentives for improved forest management. In the Congo in newly opened areas for logging and in
areas where existing concessions are canceled or returned, concessions are allocated by bidding.
Bidders submit a bid per cubic meter for the annual volume available for cutting (Egli, 1990). Côte d'Ivoire has also introduced bidding for new logging concessions and Ghana has agreed to do the same (World Bank, 1988). The Côte d'Ivoire government in early 1991 auctioned log export rights: 30 out of 40 registered bidders participated, 20 were successful and the average sale price was 25% higher than the administratively set price (Chausse, 1991). When there is sufficient competition, bidding ensures: (a) that concessions go to the most efficient and productive operation; and (b) that the government or community that owns the resource extracts the maximum amount of revenues (rents). The bidding price also provides a market based indicator for adjusting forest fees to their correct levels—even for concessions that cannot be allocated by bidding.
The system could be improved further by: (a) replacing logging concessions with forest management concessions; (b) using sealed tender; (c) including technical competence among the allocation criteria; (d) entrusting the bidding procedure to an independent auctioneer; (e) opening the concession bid to local communities and NGOs as well as local and international firms; (f) auctioning the concessions in small but manageable units and making them transferable; and (g) making concessions sufficiently long to internalize the value of the next crop, with a review every five years to ensure satisfactory performance (Grut et al., 1991).
Economic incentives may also be introduced to support the regulation and management of
concessions. For example, pre-payment of forest fees or deposit of refundable performance bonds
may help avoid logging damage and encourage regeneration. An interesting performance or
compliance incentive is the “interim concession license” (Lettre d'Intention) introduced in Zaire in 1984 to weed out speculators acquiring large concessions without making the necessary investments in forest inventory and efficient harvesting and processing. The interim license requires the satisfactory completion of 20 elements (specified in the application file) before it can be converted into a full concession license. If the concessionaire does not make the necessary investments within three years, the interim license is canceled. Since the applicants are required to pay in advance for inventories of their prospective concession areas, they are more likely to take their responsibilities seriously.
Another innovative incentive is the “deforestation tax” levied on land clearing in public forests by the Central African Republic. It ranges from US $170 to US $500 per ha, depending on the type of public forest land (Egli, 1990). To the extent that the deforestation tax reflects the foregone non-timber values from logging, it acts as an economic incentive to reduce deforestation (Grut, 1991).
Water Resource Management: From Water Pricing in China to Water Rights in Chile From India to Morocco to Botswana, free or heavily subsidized irrigation water obstructs market signals, encouraging farmers to use the resource beyond its economic (or agricultural) optimum and
stifling incentives to invest in improvements and maintenance of existing dams that are often plagued by poor drainage and inefficient distribution systems. In Bangladesh, Nepal, and Thailand, total costs were at least 1000% of revenues collected. Cheap water often becomes a substitute for other inputs. Over-irrigation by farmers nearest to the water source leads to water logging, salinization, and alkalization. Meanwhile, those less conveniently
located are forced to rely on sporadic and sparse water. A study of Pakistan's irrigation systems found that 73% of farmers surveyed complained of insufficient water supplies, while farmers close to the water source of the same system were overwatering. The consequences are reduced crop yields, loss of irrigated lands, and increased salt loadings of return flows and aquifers. Downstream effects include the erosion and siltation of estuaries and deltas.
Water subsidies encourage farmers to treat water as an abundant resource when it is in fact scarce. With no water rights, and no effective water user associations or other mechanisms to allocate water efficiently, water scarcity does not register. Indeed, water charges do not reflect the increasing opportunity cost due to increasing scarcity. As long as farmers do not bear the true cost of water, however, they will be unlikely to appreciate its scarcity or the problems that arise with overuse. Until they receive clear market signals indicating otherwise, they will continue to use water wastefully. Beyond the less apparent economic costs, there is an absence of effective financial cost recovery mechanisms. Even at low maintenance levels only a fraction of operation and maintenance costs are covered by the revenues collected by water users. For example, revenues cover 20% of costs in Bangladesh, 27% in Thailand, and 60% in Nepal. If capital costs are included, water charges often cover only 10% to 20% of costs. It is ironic that capitalist economies such as those of Pakistan and Thailand failed to price irrigation water, while the centrally planned socialist economy of China did not.
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