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ADVERTISING AND POLITICSAs dramatis

ADVERTISING AND POLITICS
As dramatised in the successful US TV show Mad Men, the perceived success
of advertising in post-war consumer capitalism (made possible by the advent
of mass television) led directly to the hypothesis that such strategies of
persuasion could be applied to the political process. By the 1950s in the US
there were some 19 million television sets. Advertising executive Rosser
Reeves, inventor of the marketing concept of ‘Unique Selling Proposition’
(USP) and responsible, among other famous slogans, for the ‘M&Ms melt in
your mouth, not in your hand’ campaign, pioneered the view that if
commercial ‘spots’ could sell products, they could sell politicians too.
There are, of course, significant ways in which political advertising, by the
nature of what it is selling, differs from commercial advertising. However,
the strategies of association described above are, as Rosser Reeves suggested
that they could be, frequently applied to politicians. As was noted in Chapter
2 politics hasbecome, for better or worse, a process in which ‘consumers’
are presented, through the mass media, with a range of politics from which
they must select. As Nimmo and Felsberg put it, ‘political candidates must
frequently offer themselves as differing brands of the same product’ (1986,
p. 252).
6
These choices are ‘manufactured’, moreover, to contain not merely a ‘usevalue’ (political party A will run the country efficiently) but an exchange or
sign-value (political party A meansthis, as opposed to political party B, which
means something else entirely). In the process of endowing political actors
with meaning, advertisers have deployed all the techniques of their commercial colleagues, while also producing a few of their own.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF POLITICAL ADVERTISING:
THE UNITED STATES
A history of political advertising should begin with the US because it is here
that the techniques of the form were pioneered and where they have reached
their highest level of sophistication. The US, having become the twentieth
century’s most successful capitalist power, went faster, and further, in
commodifying the political process by the use of advertising than any other
country. Moreover, the techniques developed in the US were exported to
Britain and other countries.
COMMUNICATING POLITICS
90
Political advertising is sometimes viewed as a distinctively modern, not
entirely welcome product of the electronic media age. The use of media to
sell politicians is, however, by no means a recent phenomenon. Kathleen
Jamieson points out that long before the era of mass electronic media, US
political campaigning was still very much about motivating citizens to
exercise their democratic prerogative by voting. By means of pamphlets,
posters and public events such as parades and rallies, nineteenth-century
Americans were persuaded to support particular candidates and reject
others. Candidates and parties wrote campaign songs, which functioned like
modern ads, summarising policy themes and promises. As Jamieson notes:
those who pine for presidential campaigns as they were in Jefferson,
Jackson, or Lincoln’s times and who see our nation’s political decline
and fall mirrored in the rise of political spot advertising remember
a halcyon past that never was. The transparencies, bandanas,
banners, songs and cartoons that pervaded nineteenth century
campaigning telegraphed conclusions, not evidence. . . . Their
messages were briefer . . . than those of any sixty second spot ad.
The air then was filled not with substantive disputes but with
simplification, sloganeering and slander.
(1986, p. 12)
If such features of political campaigning preceded the electronic age,
however, they were invested with a qualitatively different significance by the
invention of radio and TV. Political advertising ceased to be a form of
interpersonal communication experienced simultaneously by a few hundreds
or thousands of people at most, and became mass communication about
politics, with audiences of many millions.
By the early 1950s, as already noted, television had become a truly mass
medium in the US, supported financially by advertising revenue. In the 1952
presidential campaign General Eisenhower became the first candidate to
employ a professional advertising company to design television advertisements, on which $1 million were eventually spent. The agency of Batten,
Barton, Dustine, and Osbourne was selected to design the campaign, while
Rosser Reeves assisted in formulating Eisenhower’s ‘unique selling proposition’. This was based around the idea of ‘spontaneity’, in the sense that
Eisenhower’s television campaign would focus on his ability to be spontaneous when meeting citizens, answering their questions and presenting his
policies with ease and accessibility.
This was indeed a ‘unique selling proposition’ in the context of the time,
and in some contrast to the approach of his opponent, Adlai Stevenson, who
conveyed an impression of serious bookishness which, as with British
Labour leader Michael Foot some thirty years later, was perhaps better suited
to the pre-television age.
ADVERTISING
91
Eisenhower’s spontaneity was articulated in a series of ‘Eisenhower
Answers America’ spots, showing him answering questions from the American
public. The setting up of the questions and answers was far from being
spontaneous, of course, and to a 1990s audience the results look stilted and
clumsy. Eisenhower, nevertheless, won the election, reinforcing a growing
belief in political advertising’s effectiveness as a campaigning instrument.
The ‘Eisenhower Answers America’ spots were primitive, but nevertheless
established political advertising as an essential element of any self-respecting
candidate’s armoury. From the 1952 campaign onwards, ‘spot’ political
advertising increased in sophistication and production values, acquiring
what Diamond and Bates describe as ‘distinctive rhetorical modes and visual
styles’ (1992, p. x), with several trends clearly apparent.
The shrinking spot
First, US political ads have tended to become shorter in duration. Although
the Eisenhower spots were relatively brief (around 30 seconds), the 1956
campaign saw the introduction of five-minute advertisements, sandwiched
between popular entertainment programmes in an effort to benefit from the
latter’s large audience share. Candidates also bought airtime in 30-minute
chunks, which were then used to elaborate at length on their policy positions. Research found, however, that audiences quickly grew bored with
advertisements of such length, and switched off (literally or figuratively). In
response, political advertisers moved towards shorter spots after 1956. With
some exceptions (such as Ross Perot’s 1992 presidential campaign) the
preference of campaign organisers ever since has been for 30- or 60-second
spots. This format is clearly not one in which campaign issues and candidates’ policies can be discussed at any length, giving rise to the aforementioned criticism of advertising’s negative impact on the political process.
The formof the 30/60-second spots, it is argued, determines a content which
is inevitably grounded in image rather than substantive issues.
The rise of image
The second general trend in US political advertising, then, is towards greater
emphasis on the construction of the candidate’s image (or the destruction of
an opponent’s), and away from the communication of an issue or policy
position. Richard Joslyn observes that of 506 ‘spots’ shown on American
television between 1960 and 1984, only 15 per cent contained information
about specific policies, while 57 per cent addressed the personal and professional qualities of the candidate – his or her ‘image’ (1986).
In 1992, successful candidate Bill Clinton’s image was constructed around
notions of youth, vigour and radicalism, contrasting vividly (as it was surely
meant to) with the advanced age and conservatism of his opponent George
COMMUNICATING POLITICS
92
Bush. Ronald Reagan’s image was that of a ‘nice guy’ – handsome and
congenial, while firm and unbending against the enemies of freedom. Jimmy
Carter’s image, which helped him to be elected in 1976, was of a self-made
small businessman (peanut farmer), independent of the Washington establishment which had produced the corruption of Richard Nixon and the complacency of Gerald Ford. The campaign which led to Barack Obama’s election
as president in 2008 stressed an image of the candidate as youthful, inspirational and not of the Washington establishment. His ethnicity and his roots
in Chicago black politics were the basis for an image-based campaign of
‘Hope’ and ‘Change’ (Figure 6.1)
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ADVERTISING AND POLITICSAs dramatised in the successful US TV show Mad Men, the perceived successof advertising in post-war consumer capitalism (made possible by the adventof mass television) led directly to the hypothesis that such strategies ofpersuasion could be applied to the political process. By the 1950s in the USthere were some 19 million television sets. Advertising executive RosserReeves, inventor of the marketing concept of ‘Unique Selling Proposition’(USP) and responsible, among other famous slogans, for the ‘M&Ms melt inyour mouth, not in your hand’ campaign, pioneered the view that ifcommercial ‘spots’ could sell products, they could sell politicians too.There are, of course, significant ways in which political advertising, by thenature of what it is selling, differs from commercial advertising. However,the strategies of association described above are, as Rosser Reeves suggestedthat they could be, frequently applied to politicians. As was noted in Chapter2 politics hasbecome, for better or worse, a process in which ‘consumers’are presented, through the mass media, with a range of politics from whichthey must select. As Nimmo and Felsberg put it, ‘political candidates mustfrequently offer themselves as differing brands of the same product’ (1986,p. 252).6These choices are ‘manufactured’, moreover, to contain not merely a ‘usevalue’ (political party A will run the country efficiently) but an exchange orsign-value (political party A meansthis, as opposed to political party B, whichmeans something else entirely). In the process of endowing political actorswith meaning, advertisers have deployed all the techniques of their commercial colleagues, while also producing a few of their own.A BRIEF HISTORY OF POLITICAL ADVERTISING:THE UNITED STATESA history of political advertising should begin with the US because it is herethat the techniques of the form were pioneered and where they have reachedtheir highest level of sophistication. The US, having become the twentiethcentury’s most successful capitalist power, went faster, and further, incommodifying the political process by the use of advertising than any othercountry. Moreover, the techniques developed in the US were exported toBritain and other countries.COMMUNICATING POLITICS90Political advertising is sometimes viewed as a distinctively modern, notentirely welcome product of the electronic media age. The use of media tosell politicians is, however, by no means a recent phenomenon. KathleenJamieson points out that long before the era of mass electronic media, USpolitical campaigning was still very much about motivating citizens toexercise their democratic prerogative by voting. By means of pamphlets,posters and public events such as parades and rallies, nineteenth-centuryAmericans were persuaded to support particular candidates and rejectothers. Candidates and parties wrote campaign songs, which functioned likemodern ads, summarising policy themes and promises. As Jamieson notes:those who pine for presidential campaigns as they were in Jefferson,Jackson, or Lincoln’s times and who see our nation’s political declineand fall mirrored in the rise of political spot advertising remembera halcyon past that never was. The transparencies, bandanas,banners, songs and cartoons that pervaded nineteenth centurycampaigning telegraphed conclusions, not evidence. . . . Theirmessages were briefer . . . than those of any sixty second spot ad.The air then was filled not with substantive disputes but withsimplification, sloganeering and slander.(1986, p. 12)If such features of political campaigning preceded the electronic age,however, they were invested with a qualitatively different significance by theinvention of radio and TV. Political advertising ceased to be a form ofinterpersonal communication experienced simultaneously by a few hundredsor thousands of people at most, and became mass communication aboutpolitics, with audiences of many millions.By the early 1950s, as already noted, television had become a truly massmedium in the US, supported financially by advertising revenue. In the 1952presidential campaign General Eisenhower became the first candidate toemploy a professional advertising company to design television advertisements, on which $1 million were eventually spent. The agency of Batten,Barton, Dustine, and Osbourne was selected to design the campaign, whileRosser Reeves assisted in formulating Eisenhower’s ‘unique selling proposition’. This was based around the idea of ‘spontaneity’, in the sense thatEisenhower’s television campaign would focus on his ability to be spontaneous when meeting citizens, answering their questions and presenting hispolicies with ease and accessibility.This was indeed a ‘unique selling proposition’ in the context of the time,and in some contrast to the approach of his opponent, Adlai Stevenson, whoconveyed an impression of serious bookishness which, as with BritishLabour leader Michael Foot some thirty years later, was perhaps better suitedto the pre-television age.ADVERTISING91Eisenhower’s spontaneity was articulated in a series of ‘EisenhowerAnswers America’ spots, showing him answering questions from the Americanpublic. The setting up of the questions and answers was far from beingspontaneous, of course, and to a 1990s audience the results look stilted andclumsy. Eisenhower, nevertheless, won the election, reinforcing a growingbelief in political advertising’s effectiveness as a campaigning instrument.The ‘Eisenhower Answers America’ spots were primitive, but neverthelessestablished political advertising as an essential element of any self-respectingcandidate’s armoury. From the 1952 campaign onwards, ‘spot’ politicaladvertising increased in sophistication and production values, acquiringwhat Diamond and Bates describe as ‘distinctive rhetorical modes and visualstyles’ (1992, p. x), with several trends clearly apparent.The shrinking spotFirst, US political ads have tended to become shorter in duration. Althoughthe Eisenhower spots were relatively brief (around 30 seconds), the 1956campaign saw the introduction of five-minute advertisements, sandwichedbetween popular entertainment programmes in an effort to benefit from thelatter’s large audience share. Candidates also bought airtime in 30-minutechunks, which were then used to elaborate at length on their policy positions. Research found, however, that audiences quickly grew bored withadvertisements of such length, and switched off (literally or figuratively). Inresponse, political advertisers moved towards shorter spots after 1956. Withsome exceptions (such as Ross Perot’s 1992 presidential campaign) thepreference of campaign organisers ever since has been for 30- or 60-secondspots. This format is clearly not one in which campaign issues and candidates’ policies can be discussed at any length, giving rise to the aforementioned criticism of advertising’s negative impact on the political process.The formof the 30/60-second spots, it is argued, determines a content whichis inevitably grounded in image rather than substantive issues.The rise of imageThe second general trend in US political advertising, then, is towards greateremphasis on the construction of the candidate’s image (or the destruction ofan opponent’s), and away from the communication of an issue or policyposition. Richard Joslyn observes that of 506 ‘spots’ shown on Americantelevision between 1960 and 1984, only 15 per cent contained informationabout specific policies, while 57 per cent addressed the personal and professional qualities of the candidate – his or her ‘image’ (1986).In 1992, successful candidate Bill Clinton’s image was constructed aroundnotions of youth, vigour and radicalism, contrasting vividly (as it was surelymeant to) with the advanced age and conservatism of his opponent GeorgeCOMMUNICATING POLITICS92Bush. Ronald Reagan’s image was that of a ‘nice guy’ – handsome andcongenial, while firm and unbending against the enemies of freedom. JimmyCarter’s image, which helped him to be elected in 1976, was of a self-madesmall businessman (peanut farmer), independent of the Washington establishment which had produced the corruption of Richard Nixon and the complacency of Gerald Ford. The campaign which led to Barack Obama’s electionas president in 2008 stressed an image of the candidate as youthful, inspirational and not of the Washington establishment. His ethnicity and his rootsin Chicago black politics were the basis for an image-based campaign of‘Hope’ and ‘Change’ (Figure 6.1)
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IKLAN DAN POLITIK
Seperti didramatisasi di AS sukses acara TV Mad Men, keberhasilan yang dirasakan
iklan dalam kapitalisme konsumen pasca-perang (dimungkinkan oleh munculnya
televisi massa) dipimpin langsung ke hipotesis bahwa strategi seperti
persuasi dapat diterapkan pada proses politik. Pada tahun 1950-an di Amerika Serikat
ada sekitar 19 juta set televisi. Eksekutif periklanan Rosser
Reeves, penemu konsep pemasaran 'Unique Selling Proposition'
(USP) dan bertanggung jawab, antara slogan terkenal lainnya, untuk 'M & Ms meleleh di
mulut Anda, bukan di tangan Anda 'kampanye, merintis pandangan bahwa jika
komersial ' tempat 'bisa menjual produk, mereka bisa menjual politisi juga.
Ada, tentu saja, cara yang signifikan di mana iklan politik, dengan
sifat apa yang menjual, berbeda dari iklan komersial. Namun,
strategi dasar yang dijelaskan di atas, sebagai Rosser Reeves menyarankan
bahwa mereka bisa, sering diterapkan untuk politisi. Sebagaimana telah dicatat dalam Bab
2 politik hasbecome, untuk lebih baik atau lebih buruk, sebuah proses di mana 'konsumen'
disajikan, melalui media massa, dengan berbagai politik yang
mereka harus memilih. Sebagai Nimmo dan Felsberg mengatakan, 'kandidat politik harus
sering menawarkan diri sebagai merek produk yang sama berbeda '(1986,
hlm. 252).
6
Pilihan-pilihan ini 'diproduksi', apalagi, mengandung bukan hanya 'usevalue' (politik Partai A akan menjalankan negara secara efisien) tetapi pertukaran atau
sign-nilai (meansthis Partai politik, sebagai lawan partai B politik, yang
berarti sesuatu yang lain sama sekali). Dalam proses endowing aktor politik
dengan makna, pengiklan telah dikerahkan semua teknik rekan komersial mereka, sementara juga menghasilkan beberapa mereka sendiri.
SEJARAH SINGKAT IKLAN POLITIK:
AMERIKA SERIKAT
Riwayat iklan politik harus dimulai dengan AS karena di sini
bahwa teknik bentuk yang dipelopori dan di mana mereka telah mencapai
tingkat tertinggi kecanggihan. AS, setelah menjadi kedua puluh
kekuatan kapitalis paling sukses abad ini, pergi lebih cepat, dan lebih lanjut, dalam
komodifikasi proses politik dengan menggunakan iklan daripada yang lain setiap
negara. Selain itu, teknik yang dikembangkan di AS yang diekspor ke
Inggris dan negara-negara lain.
BERKOMUNIKASI POLITIK
90
Iklan politik kadang-kadang dipandang sebagai, tidak khas modern
sepenuhnya diterima produk dari usia media elektronik. Penggunaan media untuk
menjual politisi, bagaimanapun, tidak berarti fenomena baru. Kathleen
Jamieson menunjukkan bahwa jauh sebelum era media elektronik massa, US
kampanye politik masih sangat banyak tentang memotivasi warga untuk
melaksanakan hak prerogatif demokratis mereka dengan voting. Dengan cara pamflet,
poster dan acara-acara publik seperti parade dan aksi unjuk rasa, abad kesembilan belas
Amerika dibujuk untuk mendukung kandidat tertentu dan menolak
yang lain. Kandidat dan partai menulis lagu kampanye, yang berfungsi seperti
iklan modern, meringkas tema kebijakan dan janji-janji. Sebagai catatan Jamieson:
mereka yang pinus untuk kampanye presiden karena mereka berada di Jefferson,
Jackson, atau kali Lincoln dan yang melihat penurunan politik bangsa kita
dan jatuh tercermin dalam kebangkitan spot iklan politik mengingat
masa lalu tenang yang pernah ada. Transparansi, bandana,
spanduk, lagu dan kartun yang diresapi abad kesembilan belas
kampanye telegram kesimpulan, bukan bukti. . . . Mereka
pesan yang singkat. . . dibandingkan dengan penduduk enam puluh iklan tempat kedua.
Udara kemudian diisi tidak dengan perselisihan substantif tetapi dengan
penyederhanaan, slogan dan fitnah.
(1986, hlm. 12)
Jika fitur seperti kampanye politik mendahului era elektronik,
namun, mereka diinvestasikan dengan arti kualitatif berbeda dengan
penemuan radio dan TV. Iklan politik tidak lagi menjadi suatu bentuk
komunikasi interpersonal yang dialami secara bersamaan oleh beberapa ratus
atau ribuan orang paling banyak, dan menjadi komunikasi massa tentang
politik, dengan penonton dari jutaan.
Pada awal 1950-an, sebagaimana telah dicatat, televisi telah menjadi benar-benar massa
menengah di AS, didukung secara finansial oleh pendapatan iklan. Di tahun 1952
kampanye presiden Jenderal Eisenhower menjadi kandidat pertama yang
menggunakan sebuah perusahaan periklanan profesional untuk merancang iklan televisi, di mana $ 1.000.000 akhirnya menghabiskan. Badan dari Batten,
Barton, Dustine, dan Osbourne dipilih untuk merancang kampanye, sementara
Rosser Reeves membantu dalam merumuskan Eisenhower 'menjual proposisi unik'. Hal ini didasarkan sekitar gagasan 'spontanitas', dalam arti bahwa
kampanye televisi Eisenhower akan fokus pada kemampuannya untuk menjadi spontan saat bertemu warga, menjawab pertanyaan mereka dan menyajikan nya
kebijakan dengan mudah dan aksesibilitas.
Ini memang 'unik menjual proposisi 'dalam konteks waktu,
dan dalam beberapa kontras dengan pendekatan lawannya, Adlai Stevenson, yang
disampaikan kesan bookishness serius yang, seperti dengan British
pemimpin Partai Buruh Michael Foot sekitar tiga puluh tahun kemudian, itu mungkin lebih cocok
untuk pra -Televisi usia.
ADVERTISING
91
spontanitas Eisenhower diartikulasikan dalam serangkaian 'Eisenhower
Jawaban America 'bintik-bintik, menunjukkan dia menjawab pertanyaan dari Amerika
publik. Pengaturan dari pertanyaan dan jawaban itu jauh dari
spontan, tentu saja, dan kepada audiens 1990 hasilnya terlihat kaku dan
canggung. Eisenhower, bagaimanapun, memenangkan pemilihan, memperkuat tumbuh
kepercayaan efektivitas iklan politik sebagai instrumen kampanye.
The 'Eisenhower Jawaban America' bintik-bintik yang primitif, namun demikian
didirikan iklan politik sebagai elemen penting dari setiap menghargai diri sendiri
gudang senjata kandidat. Dari 1952 kampanye dan seterusnya, 'tempat' politik
iklan meningkat di kecanggihan dan produksi nilai-nilai, memperoleh
apa Diamond dan Bates menggambarkan sebagai 'mode retorika khas dan visual yang
gaya '(1992, hal. x), dengan beberapa kecenderungan jelas terlihat.
menyusut tempat
Pertama, iklan politik AS cenderung menjadi lebih pendek dalam durasi. Meskipun
tempat Eisenhower relatif singkat (sekitar 30 detik), 1956
kampanye melihat pengenalan iklan lima menit, terjepit
di antara program hiburan populer dalam upaya untuk mendapatkan keuntungan dari
pangsa pemirsa besar terakhir. Calon juga membeli airtime di 30 menit
potongan, yang kemudian digunakan untuk menguraikan panjang lebar tentang posisi kebijakan mereka. Penelitian menemukan, bagaimanapun, bahwa penonton cepat bosan dengan
iklan panjang tersebut, dan dimatikan (secara harfiah atau kiasan). Dalam
tanggapan, pengiklan politik bergerak menuju tempat yang lebih pendek setelah 1956. Dengan
beberapa pengecualian (seperti tahun 1992 kampanye presiden Ross Perot) yang
preferensi penyelenggara kampanye sejak telah selama 30- atau 60-detik
bintik-bintik. Format ini jelas bukan salah satu di mana isu-isu kampanye dan kebijakan kandidat dapat didiskusikan pada setiap panjang, sehingga menimbulkan kritik tersebut dari dampak negatif iklan pada proses politik.
The formof 30 spot / 60 detik, ia berpendapat, menentukan konten yang
mau tidak mau didasarkan pada gambar, bukan isu-isu substantif.
Munculnya gambar
Kecenderungan umum kedua di AS iklan politik, maka, adalah menuju yang lebih besar
penekanan pada pembangunan citra kandidat (atau penghancuran
lawan), dan jauh dari komunikasi masalah atau kebijakan
posisi. Richard Joslyn mengamati bahwa dari 506 'tempat' ditampilkan pada Amerika
televisi antara tahun 1960 dan 1984, hanya 15 persen informasi yang terkandung
tentang kebijakan tertentu, sementara 57 persen membahas kualitas pribadi dan profesional calon - 'image' nya (1986 ).
Pada tahun 1992, citra sukses calon Bill Clinton dibangun di sekitar
gagasan pemuda, semangat dan radikalisme, kontras jelas (seperti itu pasti
dimaksudkan untuk) dengan usia lanjut dan konservatisme lawannya George
berkomunikasi POLITIK
92
Bush. Gambar Ronald Reagan adalah bahwa dari 'nice guy' - tampan dan
menyenangkan, sementara perusahaan dan kaku melawan musuh-musuh kebebasan. Jimmy
image Carter, yang membantunya untuk dipilih pada tahun 1976, adalah sebuah self-made
pengusaha kecil (petani kacang tanah), independen dari pembentukan Washington yang telah menghasilkan korupsi Richard Nixon dan kepuasan dari Gerald Ford. Kampanye yang menyebabkan pemilihan Barack Obama
sebagai presiden pada tahun 2008 menekankan gambar calon sebagai muda, inspiratif, bukan dari pembentukan Washington. Etnisitas dan akarnya
di Chicago politik hitam adalah dasar untuk kampanye berbasis gambar dari
'Harapan' dan 'Ubah' (Gambar 6.1)
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