112 Robert DreebenOnce . . . indices [of social structure] are establi terjemahan - 112 Robert DreebenOnce . . . indices [of social structure] are establi Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

112 Robert DreebenOnce . . . indice

112 Robert Dreeben
Once . . . indices [of social structure] are established, it becomes possible to have systematic. .
.comparisons of the behaviors of people of similar class status living within differently proportioned
class structures . . . [0]ther types of social differentiation can be indexed by the frequency
distributions of various statuses (education, race, age, etc.) and combined with the systematic study
of individuals similarly situated within these varying structures, (p. 83)
This statement expresses the logic of structural (contextual) effects. The Merton-Kitt essay
was primarily a work of social psychology. Identifying group characteristics was subsidiary
and was treated primarily to identify definitions of situations that influenced attitudes, selfassessments,
mobility, and individual action. Merton (1957b) later reanalyzed and elaborated
the 1950 essay in "Continuities in the Theory of Reference Groups and Social Structure",
which devoted more attention to social organization and group properties than its predecessor.
In part of "Continuities' . . . " Merton (1957b) reworked the 1950 essay to expand his
views on the properties of groups. Among them were the concepts of collectivity (a group
whose members interact, share, and abide by norms) and category (aggregates of persons with
similar characteristics [e.g., age, sex, race], but who do not necessarily interact or share norms).
Social categories can become transformed into cohesive collectivities, but the distinction between
collectivities and categories suggests that aggregating individual characteristics into
social categories does not necessarily indicate a normative climate. Identifying climates requires
demonstrating that a category is also a collectivity exerting normative influence. He
devoted part of this essay to an inventory of structural properties: among them clarity of definition
of membership, completeness of membership, differentiation, visibility of conduct, group
autonomy or independence, and toleration of deviant or variant behavior (pp. 308-326), thereby
expanding the idea of structure beyond Durkheim's concept of social facts and his treatment
of how social facts influence conduct through "Attachment to Groups" in Moral Education
(Durkheim, 1902-1903, 1961).
These essays, and others not cited here, were emblematic of a Columbia tradition of
dealing with the connection between individuals and social structure. Another characteristic
of that tradition was the priority given to single and to comparative organizational case studies
relying on observational, survey, documentary, and intensive interview methodologies, among
them Blau's Dynamics of Bureaucracy (1955), Gouldner's Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy
(1954), and Lipset, Trow, and Coleman's Union Democracy (1956). These studies examined
variations in the division of labor, authority relations, cohesion, rules and norms, personnel
policies, methods of production, work and nonwork activities, controls, sanctions, and
patterns of interaction among workers and officials and between them and others situated
outside the work setting. They demonstrated connections between social structure and individual
conduct through descriptions of ongoing social events, portraying social life in organizations
with greater richness and variety than Durkheim could express by demonstrating empirical
relations between rates of social conduct and aggregate group characteristics. What
distinguished this work was not so much its fieldwork methodology (although that was important),
but that it conceptualized ongoing social processes and their relation to organizational
structure.
Method
Kendall and Lazarsfeld (1950), in "Problems of Survey Analysis," also employed evidence
from The American Soldier (Stouffer, Suchman, et al., 1949b; Stouffer, A. A. Lumsdaine, et
al., 1949a), but to develop a general logic of survey analysis. They examined, for example, the




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112 Robert Dreeben
Once . . . indices [of social structure] are established, it becomes possible to have systematic. .
.comparisons of the behaviors of people of similar class status living within differently proportioned
class structures . . . [0]ther types of social differentiation can be indexed by the frequency
distributions of various statuses (education, race, age, etc.) and combined with the systematic study
of individuals similarly situated within these varying structures, (p. 83)
This statement expresses the logic of structural (contextual) effects. The Merton-Kitt essay
was primarily a work of social psychology. Identifying group characteristics was subsidiary
and was treated primarily to identify definitions of situations that influenced attitudes, selfassessments,
mobility, and individual action. Merton (1957b) later reanalyzed and elaborated
the 1950 essay in "Continuities in the Theory of Reference Groups and Social Structure",
which devoted more attention to social organization and group properties than its predecessor.
In part of "Continuities' . . . " Merton (1957b) reworked the 1950 essay to expand his
views on the properties of groups. Among them were the concepts of collectivity (a group
whose members interact, share, and abide by norms) and category (aggregates of persons with
similar characteristics [e.g., age, sex, race], but who do not necessarily interact or share norms).
Social categories can become transformed into cohesive collectivities, but the distinction between
collectivities and categories suggests that aggregating individual characteristics into
social categories does not necessarily indicate a normative climate. Identifying climates requires
demonstrating that a category is also a collectivity exerting normative influence. He
devoted part of this essay to an inventory of structural properties: among them clarity of definition
of membership, completeness of membership, differentiation, visibility of conduct, group
autonomy or independence, and toleration of deviant or variant behavior (pp. 308-326), thereby
expanding the idea of structure beyond Durkheim's concept of social facts and his treatment
of how social facts influence conduct through "Attachment to Groups" in Moral Education
(Durkheim, 1902-1903, 1961).
These essays, and others not cited here, were emblematic of a Columbia tradition of
dealing with the connection between individuals and social structure. Another characteristic
of that tradition was the priority given to single and to comparative organizational case studies
relying on observational, survey, documentary, and intensive interview methodologies, among
them Blau's Dynamics of Bureaucracy (1955), Gouldner's Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy
(1954), and Lipset, Trow, and Coleman's Union Democracy (1956). These studies examined
variations in the division of labor, authority relations, cohesion, rules and norms, personnel
policies, methods of production, work and nonwork activities, controls, sanctions, and
patterns of interaction among workers and officials and between them and others situated
outside the work setting. They demonstrated connections between social structure and individual
conduct through descriptions of ongoing social events, portraying social life in organizations
with greater richness and variety than Durkheim could express by demonstrating empirical
relations between rates of social conduct and aggregate group characteristics. What
distinguished this work was not so much its fieldwork methodology (although that was important),
but that it conceptualized ongoing social processes and their relation to organizational
structure.
Method
Kendall and Lazarsfeld (1950), in "Problems of Survey Analysis," also employed evidence
from The American Soldier (Stouffer, Suchman, et al., 1949b; Stouffer, A. A. Lumsdaine, et
al., 1949a), but to develop a general logic of survey analysis. They examined, for example, the




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112 Robert Dreeben
Sekali. . . indeks [struktur sosial] ditetapkan, maka ada kemungkinan untuk memiliki sistematis. .
.comparisons dari perilaku orang-orang hidup Status kelas yang sama dalam berbeda proporsional
struktur kelas. . . [0] jenis ther diferensiasi sosial dapat diindeks oleh frekuensi
distribusi berbagai status (pendidikan, ras, usia, dll) dan dikombinasikan dengan studi sistematis
individu sama terletak dalam struktur yang berbeda-beda, (hal. 83)
Pernyataan ini mengekspresikan logika struktural (kontekstual) efek. The Merton-Kitt esai
terutama karya psikologi sosial. Mengidentifikasi karakteristik kelompok adalah anak perusahaan
dan diperlakukan terutama untuk mengidentifikasi definisi situasi yang mempengaruhi sikap, selfassessments,
mobilitas, dan tindakan individu. Merton (1957b) kemudian dianalisa dan diuraikan
1950 esai dalam "kesinambungan dalam Teori Referensi Kelompok dan Struktur Sosial",
yang ditujukan lebih memperhatikan organisasi sosial dan sifat kelompok dari pendahulunya.
Dalam bagian dari "kontinuitas"... "Merton (1957b) ulang tahun 1950 esai untuk memperluas
pandangan tentang sifat-sifat kelompok. Di antara mereka adalah konsep kolektivitas (kelompok
yang anggotanya berinteraksi, berbagi, dan mematuhi norma-norma) dan kategori (agregat orang dengan
karakteristik serupa [misalnya, usia, jenis kelamin, ras], tetapi yang tidak selalu berinteraksi atau norma saham) .
kategori sosial dapat menjadi berubah menjadi jajahan kohesif, tetapi perbedaan antara
kolektivitas dan kategori menunjukkan bahwa menggabungkan karakteristik individu dalam
kategori sosial tidak selalu menunjukkan iklim normatif. Mengidentifikasi iklim memerlukan
menunjukkan bahwa kategori juga merupakan kolektivitas mengerahkan pengaruh normatif. Dia
mengabdikan bagian dari esai ini untuk inventarisasi sifat struktural: antaranya kejelasan definisi
keanggotaan, kelengkapan keanggotaan, diferensiasi, visibilitas perilaku, kelompok
otonomi atau kemerdekaan, dan toleransi perilaku menyimpang atau varian (pp 308-326.) , sehingga
memperluas gagasan struktur luar konsep Durkheim fakta sosial dan pengobatannya
bagaimana fakta-fakta sosial yang mempengaruhi melakukan melalui "Lampiran Kelompok" Pendidikan Moral
(Durkheim, 1902-1903, 1961).
esai ini, dan lain-lain tidak dikutip di sini, adalah simbol dari tradisi Columbia dari
berurusan dengan hubungan antara individu dan struktur sosial. Karakteristik lain
dari tradisi itu adalah prioritas diberikan kepada tunggal dan studi kasus organisasi komparatif
mengandalkan pengamatan, survei, dokumenter, dan metodologi wawancara intensif, antara
mereka Blau Dinamika Birokrasi (1955), Pola Gouldner tentang Birokrasi Industri
(1954), dan Lipset, Trow, dan Coleman Union Demokrasi (1956). Studi ini meneliti
variasi dalam pembagian kerja, hubungan otoritas, kohesi, aturan dan norma, personil
kebijakan, metode produksi, kerja dan kegiatan nonwork, kontrol, sanksi, dan
pola interaksi antara pekerja dan pejabat dan antara mereka dan orang lain yang berada
di luar lingkungan kerja. Mereka menunjukkan hubungan antara struktur sosial dan individu
melakukan melalui deskripsi peristiwa sosial yang sedang berlangsung, menggambarkan kehidupan sosial dalam organisasi
dengan kekayaan yang lebih besar dan beragam daripada Durkheim bisa mengungkapkan dengan menunjukkan empiris
hubungan antara tingkat perilaku sosial dan karakteristik kelompok agregat. Apa yang
membedakan pekerjaan ini tidak begitu banyak metodologi penelitian lapangan yang (meskipun itu penting),
tetapi itu dikonsep proses yang sedang berlangsung sosial dan hubungannya dengan organisasi
struktur.
Metode
Kendall dan Lazarsfeld (1950), dalam "Masalah Analisis Survey," juga digunakan Bukti
dari The Soldier Amerika (Stouffer, Suchman, et al, 1949b;. Stouffer, AA Lumsdaine, et
. al, 1949a), tetapi untuk mengembangkan logika umum analisis survei. Mereka diperiksa, misalnya,




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