Plants in medicine: originsof the pharmacognocy The universal role of  terjemahan - Plants in medicine: originsof the pharmacognocy The universal role of  Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

Plants in medicine: originsof the p

Plants in medicine: originsof the pharmacognocy

The universal role of plants in the treatment of diseaseis exemplified by their employment in all the major systems of medicine irrespective of the underlying philosophical premise. As examples, we have Western medicine with origins in Mesopotamia and Egypt, the Unani (Islamic) and Ayurvedic (Hindu) systemscentred in western Asia and the Indian subcontinent and those of the Orient (China, Japan,Tibet, etc.). How and when such medicinal plants were first used is, in many cases, lost in pre-history, indeed animals, other than man, appear to have their own materia medica. Following the oral transmission of medical information came the use of writing (e.g. the Egyptian Papyrus Ebers c.1600 BC), baked clay tablets (some 660 cuneiform tablets c. 650 ec from Ashurbanipal's library at Nineveh, now in the British Museum, refer to drugs well-known today), parchments and manuscript herbals, printed herbals (invention of printing l44O AD), pharmacopoeias and other works of reference (ftrst London Pharmacopoeia, 1618; first British Pharmacopoeia 1864), and most recently electronic storage of data. Similar records exist for Chinese medicinal plants (texts from the 4th century BC), Ayurvedic medicine (Ayurveda 2500-600 nc) and Unani medicine (Kitab-Al-ShiJa, rhe Magnum Opus of Avicenna,980-1037 AD).

In addition to the above recorded information there is a great wealth of knowledge concerning the medicinal, narcotic and other properties of plants that is still transmitted orally from generationto generationby tribal societies, particularly those of tropical Africa, North and South America and the Pacific countries. These are areas containing the world's greatest number of plant species, not found elsewhere, and with the westernization of so many of the peoples of these zones there is a pressing need to record local knowledge before it is lost forever. In addition, with the extermination of plant species progressing at an alarming rate in certain regions, even before plants have been botanically recorded, much less studied chemically and pharmacologically, the need arises for increased efforts directed towards the conservation of gene pools.

A complete understanding of medicinal plants involves a number of disciplines in cluding commerce, botany, horticulture, chemistry enzymology, genetics, quality control and pharmacology. Pharmacognosy is not any one of these per se but seeks to embrace them in a unified whole for the better understanding and utilization of medicinal plants. A perusal of the monographs on crude drugs in a modern pharmacopoeia at once illusfates the necessity for a multidisciplinary approach. Unlike those who laid the foundations of pharmacognosy, no one person can now expectto be an expert in all areas and, asis illustratedin the next chapter, pharmacognosy can be independently approached from a number of viewpoints.

The word 'pharmacognosy'had its debut in the early 19th century to designate the discipline related to medicinal plants; it is derived from the Greek pharmakon, 'a drug', and gignosco, 'to acquire a knowledge of' and, as recordedby Dr K. Ganzinger(Sci. Pharm.1982, 50, 351), the terms 'pharmacognosy' and 'pharmacodynamics' were probably first coined by JohannAdam Schmidt (1759-1809) in his hand-written manuscript Lehrbuch der Materia Medica, which was posthumously published in Vienna in 18I 1. Schmidt was, unril his death, professor at the medico-surgical Joseph Academy in Vienna; interestingly he was also Beethoven's physician. Shortly after the above publication, 'pharrnacognosy' appears again in 1815 in a small work by Chr. Aenotheus Seydler entitled Analecta Pharmacognostica.

Pharmacognosyis closely related to botany and plant chemistry and, indeed, both originated from the eartier scientific studieson medicinal plants. As late as the beginning of the 20th century, the subject had developed mainly on the botanical side, being concemed with the description and identification of drugs, both in the whole state and in powder and with their history, commerce, collection, preparation and storage. Such branches of pharmacognosy are still of fundamental importance, particularly for pharmacopoeial identification and quality control purposes, but rapid developments in other areas have enormously expanded the subject.

The use of modern isolation techniquesand pharmacological testing procedures means that new plant drugs usually find their way into medicine as purified substances rather than in the form of galenical preparations. Preparationis usually confined to one or a few companies who process all the raw material; thus, few pharmacists have occasion to handle dried Catharanthus roseils although they are familiar with formulations of the isolated alkaloids vinblastine and vincristine. For these new drugs it is important that the pharmacist, rather than being fully conversant with the macroscopical and histological characters of the dried plant, is able to cary out the chromatographic and other pro cedures necessary for the identification and determination of purity of the preparation supplied. Similar remarks apply to such drugs as Rauwolfia, the modern preparationsof ergot, and the cardioactive and purgative drugs.

When specific plants,including those used in traditional medicine, suddenly become of interest to the world at large, the local wild sources soon become exhausted. This necessitates, in the caseof as Catharanthus roseus, Coleus forskohlii, Arnica montana and Taxus brevfolia, research into the cultivation or artificial propagation by cell culture, etc., of such species. order to avert the type of supply In crisis that arose at the clinical trial stage with the anticancer drug taxol, isolated from 7. brevfolia, the US National Cancer Institute has initiated plans for future action when a similar situation again arises (see G. M. Cragg et al., J. Nat. Prod., 1993, 56, 1657).
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Plants in medicine: originsof the pharmacognocy

The universal role of plants in the treatment of diseaseis exemplified by their employment in all the major systems of medicine irrespective of the underlying philosophical premise. As examples, we have Western medicine with origins in Mesopotamia and Egypt, the Unani (Islamic) and Ayurvedic (Hindu) systemscentred in western Asia and the Indian subcontinent and those of the Orient (China, Japan,Tibet, etc.). How and when such medicinal plants were first used is, in many cases, lost in pre-history, indeed animals, other than man, appear to have their own materia medica. Following the oral transmission of medical information came the use of writing (e.g. the Egyptian Papyrus Ebers c.1600 BC), baked clay tablets (some 660 cuneiform tablets c. 650 ec from Ashurbanipal's library at Nineveh, now in the British Museum, refer to drugs well-known today), parchments and manuscript herbals, printed herbals (invention of printing l44O AD), pharmacopoeias and other works of reference (ftrst London Pharmacopoeia, 1618; first British Pharmacopoeia 1864), and most recently electronic storage of data. Similar records exist for Chinese medicinal plants (texts from the 4th century BC), Ayurvedic medicine (Ayurveda 2500-600 nc) and Unani medicine (Kitab-Al-ShiJa, rhe Magnum Opus of Avicenna,980-1037 AD).

In addition to the above recorded information there is a great wealth of knowledge concerning the medicinal, narcotic and other properties of plants that is still transmitted orally from generationto generationby tribal societies, particularly those of tropical Africa, North and South America and the Pacific countries. These are areas containing the world's greatest number of plant species, not found elsewhere, and with the westernization of so many of the peoples of these zones there is a pressing need to record local knowledge before it is lost forever. In addition, with the extermination of plant species progressing at an alarming rate in certain regions, even before plants have been botanically recorded, much less studied chemically and pharmacologically, the need arises for increased efforts directed towards the conservation of gene pools.

A complete understanding of medicinal plants involves a number of disciplines in cluding commerce, botany, horticulture, chemistry enzymology, genetics, quality control and pharmacology. Pharmacognosy is not any one of these per se but seeks to embrace them in a unified whole for the better understanding and utilization of medicinal plants. A perusal of the monographs on crude drugs in a modern pharmacopoeia at once illusfates the necessity for a multidisciplinary approach. Unlike those who laid the foundations of pharmacognosy, no one person can now expectto be an expert in all areas and, asis illustratedin the next chapter, pharmacognosy can be independently approached from a number of viewpoints.

The word 'pharmacognosy'had its debut in the early 19th century to designate the discipline related to medicinal plants; it is derived from the Greek pharmakon, 'a drug', and gignosco, 'to acquire a knowledge of' and, as recordedby Dr K. Ganzinger(Sci. Pharm.1982, 50, 351), the terms 'pharmacognosy' and 'pharmacodynamics' were probably first coined by JohannAdam Schmidt (1759-1809) in his hand-written manuscript Lehrbuch der Materia Medica, which was posthumously published in Vienna in 18I 1. Schmidt was, unril his death, professor at the medico-surgical Joseph Academy in Vienna; interestingly he was also Beethoven's physician. Shortly after the above publication, 'pharrnacognosy' appears again in 1815 in a small work by Chr. Aenotheus Seydler entitled Analecta Pharmacognostica.

Pharmacognosyis closely related to botany and plant chemistry and, indeed, both originated from the eartier scientific studieson medicinal plants. As late as the beginning of the 20th century, the subject had developed mainly on the botanical side, being concemed with the description and identification of drugs, both in the whole state and in powder and with their history, commerce, collection, preparation and storage. Such branches of pharmacognosy are still of fundamental importance, particularly for pharmacopoeial identification and quality control purposes, but rapid developments in other areas have enormously expanded the subject.

The use of modern isolation techniquesand pharmacological testing procedures means that new plant drugs usually find their way into medicine as purified substances rather than in the form of galenical preparations. Preparationis usually confined to one or a few companies who process all the raw material; thus, few pharmacists have occasion to handle dried Catharanthus roseils although they are familiar with formulations of the isolated alkaloids vinblastine and vincristine. For these new drugs it is important that the pharmacist, rather than being fully conversant with the macroscopical and histological characters of the dried plant, is able to cary out the chromatographic and other pro cedures necessary for the identification and determination of purity of the preparation supplied. Similar remarks apply to such drugs as Rauwolfia, the modern preparationsof ergot, and the cardioactive and purgative drugs.

When specific plants,including those used in traditional medicine, suddenly become of interest to the world at large, the local wild sources soon become exhausted. This necessitates, in the caseof as Catharanthus roseus, Coleus forskohlii, Arnica montana and Taxus brevfolia, research into the cultivation or artificial propagation by cell culture, etc., of such species. order to avert the type of supply In crisis that arose at the clinical trial stage with the anticancer drug taxol, isolated from 7. brevfolia, the US National Cancer Institute has initiated plans for future action when a similar situation again arises (see G. M. Cragg et al., J. Nat. Prod., 1993, 56, 1657).
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Tanaman dalam kedokteran: originsof pharmacognocy yang Peran universal tanaman dalam pengobatan diseaseis dicontohkan oleh pekerjaan mereka di semua sistem utama obat terlepas dari premis filosofis yang mendasari. Sebagai contoh, kami memiliki pengobatan Barat dengan asal-usul di Mesopotamia dan Mesir, Unani (Islam) dan Ayurvedic (Hindu) systemscentred di Asia Barat dan benua India dan orang-orang dari Timur (China, Jepang, Tibet, dll). Bagaimana dan kapan tanaman obat seperti pertama kali digunakan adalah, dalam banyak kasus, hilang dalam pra-sejarah, memang hewan, selain manusia, tampaknya memiliki material medica mereka sendiri. Setelah transmisi lisan informasi medis datang penggunaan penulisan (misalnya Mesir Papyrus Ebers c.1600 BC), tablet tanah liat yang dibakar (beberapa 660 runcing tablet c. 650 ec dari perpustakaan Ashurbanipal di Niniwe, sekarang di British Museum, lihat obat terkenal saat ini), perkamen dan naskah herbal, herbal cetak (penemuan pencetakan l44O AD), farmakope dan karya referensi (ftrst London Pharmacopoeia, 1618; Pharmacopoeia Inggris pertama 1864), dan penyimpanan yang paling baru-baru ini data elektronik. Catatan serupa ada untuk tanaman obat Cina (teks dari abad ke-4 SM), pengobatan Ayurvedic (Ayurveda 2500-600 nc) dan obat-obatan Unani (Kitab-Al-Shija, rhe Magnum Opus Avicenna, 980-1037 M). Selain informasi yang dicatat di atas ada kekayaan besar pengetahuan tentang sifat obat, narkotika dan tanaman lainnya yang masih secara lisan dari generationto masyarakat suku generationby, terutama dari daerah tropis Afrika, Amerika Utara dan Selatan dan negara-negara Pasifik. Ini adalah daerah yang mengandung jumlah terbesar di dunia spesies tanaman, tidak ditemukan di tempat lain, dan dengan westernisasi begitu banyak dari orang-orang di zona ini ada kebutuhan mendesak untuk merekam pengetahuan lokal sebelum hilang selamanya. Selain itu, dengan pemusnahan spesies tanaman berkembang pada tingkat yang mengkhawatirkan di daerah tertentu, bahkan sebelum tanaman telah botanikal dicatat, apalagi belajar kimia dan farmakologi, perlu muncul untuk meningkatkan upaya diarahkan konservasi kolam gen. Sebuah pemahaman lengkap tanaman obat melibatkan sejumlah disiplin di cluding perdagangan, botani, hortikultura, kimia enzim, genetika, kontrol kualitas dan farmakologi. Pharmacognosy tidak salah satu dari ini per se, melainkan berusaha untuk merangkul mereka dalam sebuah kesatuan yang utuh untuk pemahaman yang lebih baik dan pemanfaatan tanaman obat. Sebuah teliti dari monograf pada simplisia dalam farmakope yang modern sekaligus illusfates perlunya pendekatan multidisiplin. Tidak seperti mereka yang meletakkan dasar-dasar pharmacognosy, tidak ada satu orang sekarang dapat expectto menjadi ahli di semua bidang dan, asis illustratedin bab berikutnya, pharmacognosy dapat mandiri didekati dari berbagai sudut pandang. Kata 'pharmacognosy'had debutnya di awal abad ke-19 untuk menunjuk disiplin yang berkaitan dengan tanaman obat; itu berasal dari pharmakon Yunani, 'obat', dan gignosco, 'untuk memperoleh pengetahuan dan, sebagai recordedby Dr K. Ganzinger (Sci. Pharm.1982, 50, 351), istilah' pharmacognosy 'dan' farmakodinamik 'itu mungkin pertama kali diciptakan oleh JohannAdam Schmidt (1759-1809) dalam tulisan tangan-Nya naskah Lehrbuch der Materia Medica, yang diterbitkan secara anumerta di Wina pada 18I 1 Schmidt adalah, unril kematiannya, profesor di medis-bedah Joseph Academy di Wina; Menariknya ia juga dokter Beethoven. Tak lama setelah publikasi di atas, 'pharrnacognosy' muncul lagi pada tahun 1815 dalam sebuah karya kecil oleh Chr. Aenotheus Seydler berjudul Analecta Pharmacognostica. Pharmacognosyis erat terkait dengan botani dan tanaman kimia dan, memang, keduanya berasal dari studieson ilmiah tanaman obat eartier. Sebagaimana pada awal abad ke-20, subjek telah dikembangkan terutama di sisi botani, yang concemed dengan deskripsi dan identifikasi obat-obatan, baik di seluruh negara dan dalam bentuk bubuk dan dengan mereka sejarah, perdagangan, koleksi, persiapan dan penyimpanan . Cabang seperti pharmacognosy masih dari pentingnya, terutama untuk tujuan identifikasi dan kontrol kualitas farmakope, tetapi perkembangan pesat di daerah lain telah berkembang luar biasa subjek. Penggunaan isolasi modern yang techniquesand prosedur pengujian farmakologi berarti bahwa obat pabrik baru biasanya menemukan jalan mereka ke obat sebagai zat dimurnikan bukan dalam bentuk persiapan kedokteran. Preparationis biasanya terbatas pada satu atau beberapa perusahaan yang memproses semua bahan baku; dengan demikian, beberapa apoteker memiliki kesempatan untuk menangani kering roseils Catharanthus meskipun mereka akrab dengan formulasi yang terisolasi alkaloid vinblastin dan vinkristin. Untuk obat-obatan baru, penting bahwa apoteker, bukannya sepenuhnya fasih dengan karakter macroscopical dan histologis tanaman kering, mampu cary keluar cedures pro kromatografi dan lainnya yang diperlukan untuk identifikasi dan penentuan kemurnian persiapan disediakan . Pernyataan serupa berlaku untuk obat-obatan seperti rauwolfia, yang preparationsof ergot modern, dan cardioactive dan obat pencahar. Ketika tanaman tertentu, termasuk yang digunakan dalam pengobatan tradisional, tiba-tiba menjadi menarik bagi dunia pada umumnya, sumber liar lokal segera menjadi lelah. Hal ini membutuhkan, dalam caseof sebagai Catharanthus roseus, Coleus forskohlii, Arnica montana dan Taxus brevfolia, penelitian budidaya atau perbanyakan buatan dengan kultur sel, dll, spesies tersebut. Untuk mencegah jenis pasokan Dalam krisis yang muncul pada tahap uji klinis dengan obat antikanker taxol, terisolasi dari 7 brevfolia, US National Cancer Institute telah memulai rencana untuk tindakan di masa depan ketika situasi yang sama lagi timbul (lihat GM Cragg et al., J. Nat. Prod., 1993, 56, 1657).













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