MODELS OF STEREOTYPE PRIMINGIn all

MODELS OF STEREOTYPE PRIMING
In all of these studies, the main theoretical explanation for the priming effects found is that the media coverage activates stereotypes in memory, which in turn influence judgments of others and of policy issues. What is striking about these studies is that the stimuli are designed so that there is no explicit reference to these stereotypes. There is no reason why these stereotypes should be influencing thoughts and judgments, but they do. In other words, unlike the other lines of research, there is not a direct priming effect of the media. Rather, the media implicitly prime stereotypes, which directly influence thoughts, beliefs, and judgments. Nevertheless, the research on media priming of stereotypes increases our confidence in the generality of the media as a prime because this research provides validation that the media can act as a prime in a unique research domain, and that a variety of media (e.g., advertisements, rock music videos, newsletters) can serve this function.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR STEREOTYPE PRIMING
As a unique research domain, stereotype priming has only recently been brought under the umbrella of media priming. Therefore, it has not been as fully developed as violence priming and political priming. Some ideas for future research include investigating whether stereotype priming has the same characteristics of priming as outlined earlier in the chapter: priming dissipates with time, primes that are stronger will tend to have stronger effects, and primes tend to have stronger effects on situations that are ambiguous. Another future direction involves the comparison group for stereotype priming. Usually it is assumed that stereotypes are negative, whereas the counterstereotype is positive. However, these counterstereotypes often have the same effect as a nonstereotype neutral condition. In other words, stereotype primes do prime negative depictions hut do not appear to prime positive ones. Why is this so? When and under which conditions is this so? It may be that the judgments used in this research tend to be at the negative end of the spectrum of political issues. Perhaps differences would be found if the judgments were about issues that people felt more positive about, in line with the positive psychology approach to understanding thoughts, judgments, and behavior (Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2006). Regarding behavior, unfortunately, no research in this area has yet focused on behavioral manifestations of the media’s priming of stereotypes.

 Concluding Remarks on Media Priming
Media priming is a robust phenomenon that occurs across different domains and different media ranging from news coverage to rap lyrics to TV dramas to documentaries. The information people use when making judgments of the president or interpreting an ambiguous act as hostile can be influenced by the content of the media. Likewise, stereotypic depictions in the media can play a role in whether people use gender or ethnic stereotypes when making judgments of people and policy issues.
Priming is typically considered a “limited effects” model of media effects. As Rogers (2004) argues, political priming research grew out of the research on agenda setting, which is a classic limited effects model. In addition, the time course of priming—being rather brief—has typically set it up as a limited effects theory. Consequently, one might imagine an argument being made that as a limited effects theory, media priming may not be particularly consequential. More research is surely needed on the behavioral consequences of media priming.
Further, as this chapter has tried to demonstrate and somewhat counter to the notion of a limited effects model, media priming can have potentially large effects. As argued earlier, analysis of the 1992 election suggests that shifting media coverage horn international to domestic issues played perhaps a limited role, in the shift from an overwhelmingly popular President Bush in 1991 to an unseated President Bush in 1992. Likewise, with the right configuration of environmental events, media priming may have profound effects, as suggested by the Mercury Theatre’s War of the Worlds broadcast in 1938. The media’s coverage of the looming war in Europe and Asia made the idea of n invasion highly salient to media users. The media’s priming of invasion clearly played a role in many people’s reactions to the broadcast. In addition, the Great Depression had been going on for nearly a decade, which increased people’s reliance on the media. Cantril, Gaudet, and Herzog (1940) argued that this confluence of events played a clear role in the effects of the War of the Worlds broadcast. We believe this highlights the growing need to study the dynamic relations between the media, the larger culture, and the individual media user. The larger dynamic can play a critical role in explaining when a limited media effect can have profound consequences.
Given the many changes going on with the media, future research also needs to explore how new technologies influence media priming. Clearly, new technologies will not change the mechanisms by which media priming occurs—accessibility will continue to play a pivotal role in theorizing about media priming. However, given that new technologies allow messages to be more effectively tailored to the individual, will this result in stronger primes that have stronger effects on people’s judgments and behavior? Likewise, very little is understood about the effects of interactivity on priming. Types of media that need to be explored are online news, Facebook, chat rooms, and Second Life, which vary in their degree of interactiveness. Does the extent of interaction with the information source increase or decrease the priming effect? The argument could be made that interactivity could increase priming effects because involvement with creating the priming event via interactivity may result it a stronger priming event. Conversely, interactivity may decrease priming because interactivity may result in more careful processing of information, which may decrease the impact of the prime because the priming event is relatively automatic (Olson & Fazio, 2009).
Finally, as we consider the next decade of priming research, we believe, first, that much of this future research will focus on examining moderators of priming effects. For example, there has been an increase in research on the impact of personality variables on aggressive priming (Meier et al., 2006, 2007). Second, more research is going to explore the generality of priming effects. Research on political priming has expanded to include research on the ability of different types of programming to prime evaluations of the president. Within the research on aggression and priming, research is exploring the impact of video games and is beginning to look at the effects of online gaming with its greater immersive environment. More specifically regarding media violence and priming, we believe that more research is needed to explore how people’s interpretations of the depicted violence influence their reactions to that violence. Why do some depictions of violence increase fear and others aggression? But we believe that the most critical task facing priming researchers in the future is to more carefully test and refine the theories of political priming. As we have tried to note throughout this chapter, the current theories of priming have difficulties accounting for many of the existing results in the literature—most notably the time frame for priming effects. Future research needs to focus on developing dynamic models that bring together the exciting research that is being conducted on media priming across the different domains of study. Undoubtedly, such research will greatly enhance our understanding of the media and its influence on human behavior.

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

MODEL STEREOTIP PRIMINGDalam studi ini, penjelasan teoretis utama untuk efek priming yang ditemukan adalah bahwa liputan media mengaktifkan stereotip dalam memori, yang pada gilirannya pengaruh penilaian orang lain, dan isu-isu kebijakan. Apa yang mencolok tentang studi ini adalah bahwa rangsangan dirancang sehingga tidak ada eksplisit referensi ke stereotip ini. Ada alasan mengapa stereotip ini harus mempengaruhi pikiran dan penilaian, tetapi mereka lakukan. Dengan kata lain, tidak seperti garis penelitian lain, tidak ada efek priming langsung dari media. Sebaliknya, media secara implisit Perdana stereotip, yang secara langsung mempengaruhi pikiran, keyakinan, dan penilaian. Namun demikian, penelitian tentang media priming stereotip meningkatkan keyakinan kami dalam keumuman media sebagai Perdana karena penelitian ini menyediakan validasi bahwa media dapat bertindak sebagai Perdana di domain penelitian yang unik, dan bahwa berbagai media (misalnya, iklan, video musik rock, newsletter) dapat melayani fungsi ini.KETERBATASAN DAN ARAH MASA DEPAN UNTUK PRIMING STEREOTIPSebagai domain unik penelitian, priming stereotip saja telah dibawa di bawah payung priming media. Oleh karena itu, itu belum sepenuhnya dikembangkan sebagai priming kekerasan dan priming politik. Beberapa ide untuk penelitian termasuk menyelidiki Apakah stereotip priming memiliki karakteristik yang sama priming seperti dijelaskan sebelumnya dalam bab: priming memboroskan dengan waktu, bilangan prima yang lebih kuat akan cenderung untuk memiliki efek yang kuat dan bilangan prima cenderung memiliki efek yang kuat pada situasi yang ambigu. Arah masa depan yang lain melibatkan kelompok pembanding untuk priming stereotip. Biasanya diasumsikan bahwa stereotip negatif, sedangkan counterstereotype positif. Namun, counterstereotypes ini sering memiliki efek yang sama sebagai kondisi netral nonstereotype. Dengan kata lain, bilangan prima stereotip Perdana negatif penggambaran hut tidak muncul untuk perdana yang positif. Mengapa hal ini begitu? Ketika dan kondisi di mana ini sehingga? Ini mungkin bahwa penilaian yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini cenderung pada akhir negatif spektrum isu-isu politik. Mungkin perbedaan akan ditemukan jika penilaian tentang isu-isu bahwa orang-orang yang merasa lebih positif tentang, sejalan dengan pendekatan psikologi positif pikiran pemahaman, penilaian dan perilaku (Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2006). Mengenai perilaku, sayangnya, tidak ada penelitian di daerah ini belum berfokus pada perilaku manifestasi priming media dari stereotip. Kesimpulan mengenai Media PrimingMedia priming adalah fenomena yang kuat yang terjadi di domain yang berbeda dan media yang berbeda mulai dari liputan berita untuk rap lirik drama-drama TV dokumenter. Informasi orang menggunakan ketika membuat keputusan Presiden atau menafsirkan tindakan ambigu sebagai bermusuhan dapat dipengaruhi oleh isi media. Demikian juga, stereotypic penggambaran di media dapat memainkan peran dalam apakah orang menggunakan stereotip jender atau etnis ketika membuat penilaian orang dan kebijakan isu-isu.Priming biasanya dianggap "membatasi efek" model media efek. Seperti berpendapat Rogers (2004), penelitian politik priming tumbuh dari penelitian pada penetapan agenda, yang merupakan model klasik efek terbatas. Selain itu, tentu saja waktu priming — menjadi agak singkat — telah biasanya memasangnya seperti terbatas efek teori. Akibatnya, orang mungkin membayangkan sebuah argumen yang sedang dibuat yang sebagai teori efek terbatas, media priming tidak mungkin terutama konsekuensial. Penelitian lebih lanjut yang pasti diperlukan pada konsekuensi perilaku priming media.Lebih lanjut, karena bab ini telah mencoba untuk menunjukkan dan agak bertentangan dengan pengertian tentang efek terbatas model, media priming dapat memiliki efek berpotensi besar. Seperti dikatakan sebelumnya, analisis pemilu tahun 1992 menunjukkan bahwa tanduk liputan media pergeseran yang internasional untuk masalah-masalah domestik yang berperan mungkin terbatas, dalam pergeseran dari Presiden Bush sangat populer pada tahun 1991 untuk Presiden Bush Sultan HB III pada tahun 1992. Demikian juga, dengan konfigurasi yang tepat dari peristiwa lingkungan akibat, media priming mungkin memiliki efek mendalam, seperti yang disarankan oleh Mercury teater perang dunia yang disiarkan pada tahun 1938. Liputan media perang menjulang di Eropa dan Asia membuat ide n invasi sangat menonjol untuk pengguna media. Media di priming invasi jelas memainkan peran dalam reaksi orang banyak untuk siaran. Selain itu, depresi besar telah berlangsung selama hampir satu dekade, yang meningkatkan ketergantungan masyarakat pada media. Cantril, Gaudet dan Herzog (1940) berpendapat bahwa acara pertemuan ini memainkan peran jelas dalam dampak perang dunia siaran. Kami percaya ini menyoroti kebutuhan yang terus meningkat untuk belajar dinamis hubungan antara media, budaya yang lebih besar dan pengguna individu media. Dinamis lebih besar dapat memainkan peran penting dalam menjelaskan ketika efek media yang terbatas yang dapat memiliki konsekuensi yang mendalam.Mengingat banyak perubahan terjadi dengan media, kebutuhan riset masa depan juga untuk mengeksplorasi cara baru teknologi pengaruh media priming. Jelas, teknologi baru tidak akan mengubah mekanisme oleh media yang priming terjadi — aksesibilitas akan terus memainkan peran penting dalam berteori mengenai media priming. Namun, mengingat bahwa teknologi baru memungkinkan pesan yang lebih efektif disesuaikan dengan individu, akan hasil ini dalam bilangan prima kuat yang memiliki efek yang kuat pada penilaian dan perilaku masyarakat? Demikian juga, sangat sedikit yang mengerti tentang efek interaktivitas mengenai priming. Jenis media yang perlu dieksplorasi adalah berita online, Facebook, chat room, dan Second Life, yang bervariasi dalam tingkat interactiveness. Apakah tingkat interaksi dengan sumber informasi yang meningkatkan atau menurunkan efek priming? Argumen dapat dibuat bahwa interaktivitas dapat meningkatkan efek priming karena keterlibatan dengan menciptakan acara priming melalui interaktivitas mungkin hasil acara priming yang kuat. Sebaliknya, interaktivitas dapat menurunkan priming karena interaktivitas dapat mengakibatkan lebih berhati-hati pengolahan informasi, yang dapat mengurangi dampak utama karena acara priming relatif otomatis (Olson & Fazio, 2009).Finally, as we consider the next decade of priming research, we believe, first, that much of this future research will focus on examining moderators of priming effects. For example, there has been an increase in research on the impact of personality variables on aggressive priming (Meier et al., 2006, 2007). Second, more research is going to explore the generality of priming effects. Research on political priming has expanded to include research on the ability of different types of programming to prime evaluations of the president. Within the research on aggression and priming, research is exploring the impact of video games and is beginning to look at the effects of online gaming with its greater immersive environment. More specifically regarding media violence and priming, we believe that more research is needed to explore how people’s interpretations of the depicted violence influence their reactions to that violence. Why do some depictions of violence increase fear and others aggression? But we believe that the most critical task facing priming researchers in the future is to more carefully test and refine the theories of political priming. As we have tried to note throughout this chapter, the current theories of priming have difficulties accounting for many of the existing results in the literature—most notably the time frame for priming effects. Future research needs to focus on developing dynamic models that bring together the exciting research that is being conducted on media priming across the different domains of study. Undoubtedly, such research will greatly enhance our understanding of the media and its influence on human behavior.