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BendunganSAYA PENDAHULUANBendungan, penghalang yang dibangun di seberang sungai atau sungai untuk mengandangkan air dan meningkatkan tingkat. Alasan paling umum untuk membangun bendungan akan berkonsentrasi kejatuhan alami sungai di situs tertentu, sehingga membuat tidak mungkin untuk menghasilkan listrik (Lihat Hydro-Power); untuk mengarahkan air dari Sungai ke kanal dan irigasi dan sistem penyediaan air; untuk meningkatkan kedalaman sungai untuk keperluan navigasi; untuk mengontrol aliran air selama masa banjir dan kekeringan; dan untuk membuat danau buatan untuk rekreasi. Banyak bendungan memenuhi beberapa fungsi-fungsi ini.Bendungan pertama dari catatan yang ada dibangun sekitar 4000 SM untuk mengalihkan Nil dalam Mesir untuk menyediakan tempat bagi kota Memphis. Banyak bendungan kuno bumi, termasuk sejumlah dibangun oleh orang Babilon, adalah sebahagian daripada sistem irigasi yang rumit yang tidak produktif daerah berubah menjadi subur dataran mampu mendukung populasi yang besar. Karena kerusakan akibat banjir periodik, bendungan sangat sedikit lebih dari satu abad lama masih berdiri. Pembangunan waduk-waduk yang hampir tidak bisa dihancurkan kapasitas tinggi dan penyimpanan yang cukup besar menjadi mungkin setelah pengembangan portland semen, beton dan pengenalan bumi bergerak mesin dan peralatan penanganan bahan.Mengontrol dan menggunakan air melalui bendungan sangat mempengaruhi prospek ekonomi dari wilayah luas. Salah satu tahap pertama dalam kemajuan negara-negara berkembang biasanya melibatkan memperoleh kemampuan untuk menggunakan bendungan untuk pembangkit listrik, pertanian, dan banjir perlindungan.II DESIGN CONSIDERATIONSA dam must be impervious to water; leakage through or under a dam must be prevented to avoid excessive water loss and to prevent undermining of the structure itself. A dam must also be constructed in such a way as to withstand the forces exerted upon it. Some forces that engineers must consider when designing a dam are gravity (which tends to pull the dam down); hydrostatic pressure (from water behind the dam); uplift (vertical forces tending to reduce the weight of the dam) caused by hydrostatic pressure on the foundation; ice pressures; and earth stresses and tensions, including the effects of earthquakes.When a site is being considered for construction of a dam, earthquake hazards must be taken into account as part of a thorough geologic analysis. In addition, geologists must determine whether the natural foundations are subject to seepage and whether they have the strength to support the weight of the dam and the water that will back up behind it.Inadequate geologic analyses have resulted in catastrophic losses. The most famous example is the disaster that occurred at the Vaiont Dam in the Italian Alps. On October 9, 1963, 4,000 lives were lost when a rock slide falling into the water behind the dam caused a huge wave to overtop the 262-m (860-ft) concrete arch structure. The force of the huge body of water falling from this height was enough to devastate the valley below for a distance of several kilometres downstream. Various geologic conditions were responsible for the rock slide, chief among them the weakening of steep, unstable rock slopes by water impounded by the dam.III HEIGHT OF DAMSThe height of a dam is limited by the topography of the site; however, other factors may dictate a less than maximum height. If the primary purpose of a dam is power generation, the dam height is critical, for the power generated increases in direct ratio to the head (height) of water impounded. For flood-control dams, storage volume is the primary consideration. Above a certain height, increase in storage volume for various functions may not justify the greater resulting cost of construction. Other limiting factors include the value and usefulness of land that will be submerged and interference with highways and railways.The lake or reservoir formed by a dam may be very large. For example, Lake Kariba, the reservoir behind the 128-m (420-ft) high Kariba Dam on the Zambezi River, completed in 1959 and shared by Zimbabwe and Zambia, is 282 km (175 mi) long, covers 5,180 sq km (2,000 sq mi), and contains about 18.4 million hectare m (about 149 million acre ft) of water.IV SPILLWAYSAfter the normal operating reservoir level has been established, means must be provided to ensure that this level will not be exceeded. A spillway is therefore necessary to discharge surplus flow without damage to the dam, powerhouse, or riverbed below the dam. The most common type of spillway is the overflow. In this type, a portion of the dam has a well-rounded crest that is somewhat lower than the top of the dam. To permit maximum use of storage volume, movable gates are sometimes installed above the crest to control discharge. In dams such as those on the Mississippi River, flood discharges are of such magnitude that the spillway occupies the entire width of the dam and the overall structure appears as a succession of vertical piers supporting movable gates. Another type of spillway is the chute, a
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