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terrain models and from surveys of the base of the dune
using a Kinematic GPS mounted on an ATV. For the
LIDAR data, the change in volume of the dunes and
beaches between 1997 and 1998 was measured directly
from the profile changes (see Fig. 5) and integrated
alongshore.
4. Results: dune erosion rates
The average dune erosion from 1940 to 1984 from
Monterey to the Salinas River is calculated as a
historical reference value during the time of intensive
sand mining, which includes the El Niño events during
winters of 1957–58 and 1982–83. The mean annual
dune volume loss (volume per unit length of shoreline)
is obtained by multiplying the measured mean recession
rate, R, by the mean dune height, H(dune top edge
minus toe elevations) for each section of beach (Fig. 8).
The volume loss is most dependent on the dune height.
The total yearly averaged volume of the sand eroded
from the dunes in southern Monterey Bay during this
44-year period is obtained by integrating 18 km
alongshore and is measured to be 270,000 m
3
/yr.
Thedunelossduringthe1997–98 El Niño was an
extreme erosion event (Fig. 9), as it was a time of
anomalously high tides and high wave energy resulting in
significant erosion. Large dune recessions were observed
at Fort Ord and Marina, as well as significant recessions at
Monterey and Sand City. Starting from the south,
recessions at Monterey ranged from 0 to 4 m. Sand City
recession ranged from 0 to 2 m. Fort Ord had cuts ranging
from 0.5 to 13 m. Large variations in dune recession
occurred alongshore. The historical mean annual dune
Fig. 8. Annual mean dune top edge recessionRwith locations of sand
mining operations indicated by (⁎) (top panel), dune height H(top
middle panel), volume of dune loss per unit distance V (bottom middle
panel), and yearly mean wave energy (bottom panel) versus distance
alongshore in southern Monterey Bay.
Fig. 9. Alongshore variations in volume loss in southern Monterey Bay
of the dune (solid line) and beach (dotted line) measured using LIDAR
during the 1997–98 El Niño winter compared with average annual
historical dune volume loss (1940–84) measured using stereophotogrammetry (dashed line). Revetments or seawalls (100–200 m
in length) denoted by (⁎).
Fig. 7. Mean recession of dune top edge along selected sections of
beach (alongshore location in km from Monterey Wharf #2, see also
Table 1). The mean recession rate is calculated as the slope of the linear
regression line.
52 E.B. Thornton et al. / Marine Geology 229 (2006) 45–58
volume loss for 1940–1984 is shown for comparison in
Fig. 9. Volume loss is also partitioned into permanent
erosion of the dune and seasonal beach change for the
LIDAR-derived profiles. The seasonal beach change is
defined as the profile differences occurring between the
shoreline at mean-lower-low water level and the toe of
the dune. The total volume loss during the 1997–98
winter was 2,593,000 m
3
, obtained by integrating the
erosion alongshore, of which 1,820,000 m
3
is dune loss
and 773,000 m
3
is beach loss. The dune volume loss
during this El Niño winter was almost seven times the
historical average annual rate. This emphasizes that
erosion can be highly episodic in time, which is not
obvious in the regression plots ofFig. 7.
The beach loss of 773,000 m
3
is about 40% of the
dune loss. The eroded beach sand goes offshore in the
winter, building the bar. Sand is moved onshore by the
summer swell waves, but there is some permanent loss
to the offshore.
5. Discussion: Dune erosion mechanics
Dune erosion is episodic and only occurs when storm
waves coincide with high tides to allow the swash to
reach and undercut the base of the sand dune. Swash is
dependent on wave height (energy) and period and
beach slope. The beach slope in turn is dependent on
sand grain size and wave energy. It is assumed that longterm wave statistics are steady-state and that sand grain
size does not change locally. Mean sea level rise (time
scale of centuries) is assumed constant, and that it causes
a constant contribution to the rate of dune erosion. It is
further assumed that the beaches are in dynamic
equilibrium over time owing to a constant supply of
sand to the littoral system. This assumption is supported
by the observation that the beach widths in southern
Monterey Bay appear to be in a long-term (1930–2001)
steady-state (Reid, 2004). Therefore, it is hypothesized
that any long-term temporal variation in dune recession
rates is associated with changes in the amount of sand
mined from the surf zone.
Dune erosion varies alongshore. Mechanisms that
may explain long-term spatial variability of dune
recession include alongshore variations in wave energy,
runoff of rainfall, beach slope, width and toe elevation,
and variations in the amounts of sand mined. These
various mechanisms are discussed next.
5.1. Waves, tides and El Niño events
Wave energy varies spatially over kilometer scales
going from small waves at the southernmost part of the
bay in the shadow of a headland to larger waves in the
middle of the southern bay, where convergence of waves
owing to refraction over Monterey Bay Submarine
Canyon results in increased wave heights. Wave
refraction across the canyon causes focusing and
defocusing of wave energy, depending on wave
direction and period. Spatial variability was examined
by calculating wave energy at 10 locations in southern
Monterey Bay (Oradiwe, 1986). The calculations were
based on directional spectra calculated using the Wave
Information Studies (WIS) (Resio, 1981) for the twenty
year period 1956–1975 and the U.S. Navy Spectral
Wave Ocean Model (SWOM) for the eighteen year
period 1964–1981. Both models used wind fields
generated for the Northern Hemisphere by the U.S.
Navy at the Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center to calculate directional wave fields. This
precludes swell waves from the Southern Hemisphere,
which is a reasonable approach since southern Monterey
Bay is protected from waves from the south by the Point
Pinos headland (Fig. 1). The directional spectra for
every 6 h at a location in deep water outside Monterey
Bay were then refracted to shore locations within the
bay using linear refraction at one-degree increments
over all incident angles of approach. Energy was
calculated by integrating the individual directional
wave spectra over the sea-swell band (0.05–0.3 Hz
and directions), and then averaging over 25 years.
1
Severe refraction occurs as the predominant waves
from the northwest pass over the Monterey Submarine
Canyon, resulting in focusing of wave energy at Marina
and Fort Ord and defocusing of energy at Monterey and
Moss Landing. The shorelines of Monterey and Sand
City are sheltered by Point Piños for waves from the
south and west quadrants and receive a reduced amount
of wave energy. The net result is a large alongshore
energy gradient, with small waves at Monterey
increasing to large waves at Fort Ord and Marina (Fig.
8, lower panel). The dune recession (Fig. 8, top panel)
has an alongshore distribution similar to the mean wave
energy. This suggests that a primary reason for
alongshore variability of erosion is due to the gradient
of wave energy.
Wave energy also varies in time. Wave energy and
erosion are typically greater during El Niño winters. An
El Niño winter occurred at the onset of the study in
1940–41 followed by events in 1957–58, 1982–83, and
1
Although this is a limited 25-year data set (not previously
published, but available) based on using a second generation wave
model, the purpose of this analysis is to demonstrate the alongshore
gradient of the annual mean energy and not the actual magnitudes.
53 E.B. Thornton et al. / Marine Geology 229 (2006) 45–58
1997–98. El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is
characterized by weak easterly trade winds, anomalously high sea surface temperatures, high sea level
elevations, large rainfall, and large waves along the
central California coast (Storlazzi and Griggs, 1998).
The incident wave directions were more westerly during
1982–83 and 1997–98 El Niños, which is significant
because the shoreline in the middle of the bay is more
vulnerable to waves from the west owing to refraction
effects.
The potential for erosion increases with increased
water level. Mean sea levels tend to be anomalously
high during El Niños, a phenomenon that is attributed to
a wave of warm water propagating northward along the
coast (Flick, 1998). The warm water is piled against the
coast to balance the colder, denser water offshore. The
sea level records at Monterey only date back to 1973,
but San Francisco sea level records started in 1853.
Comparing monthly averaged mean sea level from 1973
to 2003 between Monterey and San Francisco, a
regression slope of 0.8 is obtained with a correlation
coefficient of 0.9. Therefore, the San Francisco record is
used to infer sea level at Monterey with a reduced
elevation of 0.8. The dune recession at south Fort Ord is
compared with temporal changes in MSL (Fig. 10). The
inferred monthly averaged MSL record shows large
variations coincident with El Niño events. Increased
erosion coincides with El Niño events, during which
time the MSL is anomalously high with increased storm
waves.
Beach profiles at 11 locations within Monterey Bay
were measured byDingler and Reiss (2001)starting in
1983 just after an El Niño winter and ending in 1998 just
after another El Niño winter. They found that during El
Niños waves cut back the beach that allowed the swash
to attack the dune. The dune retreat at Fort Ord was 21 m
between February 1983 and March 1998. Of that retreat,
8 m occurred between February and April 1983 and 9 m
over the 1997–98 winter, both during El Niños, and
only 4 m during the intervening 14 years. They found
that the beach widths required about 2 years to recover
from severe erosion after the 1982–83 El Niño. The
erosion was greater during the 1982–83 El Niño
because storm durations were greater and they occurred
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