more time and opportunity to respon

more time and opportunity to respond (e.g., Rosenthal, 1973;
Snyder & Swann, 1978). The third part constitutes the reactions of
the targets to the differential treatment. For a self-fulfilling prophecy
to occur, targets must (consciously or unconsciously) follow
the script initiated by the leader (Neuberg, 1994, 1996; Smith,
Neuberg, Judice, & Biesanz, 1997).
Models of self-fulfilling prophecy effects in the workplace (e.g.,
Eden, 1990a) are similar to those developed in the education
literature: Expectations influence manager, leader, or trainer behavior
and treatment of subordinates, which in turn lead to subordinate
self-expectancy and increased (or decreased) subordinate
motivation and effort. Ultimately, the change in effort leads to
increased (or decreased) subordinate performance (e.g., Eden &
Shani, 1982).
Stigma and the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Stigmatized individuals, or those who bear a mark that indicates
a devalued identity (e.g., individuals who are disabled, ethnic
minorities, obese; Goffman, 1963), are often targets of negative
stereotypes (Crocker, Major, & Steele, 1998). Despite the inherent
association between stereotypes and expectations, the role of
stigma in leading to self-fulfilling prophecies has received limited
research attention (Jussim, Palumbo, Chatman, Madon, & Smith,
2000; for exceptions, see Snyder, Tanke, & Berscheid, 1977;
Word, Zanna, & Cooper, 1974). Educational research has provided
evidence of lowered expectations and differential treatment because
of race (e.g., Rubovits & Maehr, 1973) and socioeconomic
status (e.g., Rist, 1970). However, this research tends to be quasiexperimental,
making it difficult to isolate the role of stigma in
generating the negative expectations and subsequent self-fulfilling
prophecies. Thus, the aim of the present research was to add to the
training and stigma literature by examining self-fulfilling prophecies
elicited by stigma in training interactions. In this study, we
focused on a stigmatized characteristic that plagues over half of
America’s adults: obesity.
The Stigma of Obesity
Research indicates that obese individuals are viewed as social
deviants and are blamed for their condition (e.g., Crandall, 1994;
DeJong, 1993; Rothblum, 1992; Weiner, Perry, & Magnusson,
1988). In comparison to average-weight individuals, obese individuals
tend to be stereotyped as less hard working, less strong,
less self-restrained, and less stable (e.g., Hebl, 1997), as well as
slower, sloppier, and lazier (Ryckman, Robbins, Kaczor, & Gold,
1989). In organizations, obese individuals face discrimination in
many domains (Roehling, 1999). Obese individuals are regarded
as less desirable employees and are classified as having lower
competency, productivity, and industriousness (Larkin & Pines,
1979). In studies in which weight is experimentally manipulated,
compared with average-weight individuals, obese individuals are
less likely to be hired (Pingitore, Dugoni, Tindale, & Spring,
1994), more likely to be assigned to the least desirable sales
territories (Bellizzi & Hasty, 1998; Bellizzi, Klassen, & Belonax,
1989), less likely to receive promotions (Rothblum, Brand, Miller,
& Oetjen, 1990), and more likely to receive poor customer service
(King, Shapiro, Hebl, Singletary, & Turner, 2006). Thus, we
anticipated that negative stereotypes of stigmatized trainees, in
particular obese trainees, would negatively influence trainer expectations
and ultimately influence training effectiveness.
Gender and the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Because of its focus on the stigma of obesity in training interactions,
the present study offers a unique situation to assess gender
differences in self-fulfilling prophecies. Most expectancy studies
conducted in the classroom do not yield systematic gender differences
(Hall & Briton, 1993). In contrast, organizational research
primarily identifies expectancy effects as occurring within male
leaders (e.g., Dvir, Eden, & Banjo, 1995; McNatt, 2000; Sutton &
Woodman, 1989). However, a limited number of studies (e.g.,
Davidson & Eden, 2000) and recent meta-analyses (Kierein &
Gold, 2000; McNatt, 2000) suggest that, although it is less common,
female leaders may induce self-fulfilling prophecies in organizational
interactions. However, the targets in the present
study—obese females—belong to a group that may face the most
negative expectations from a female trainer.
In general, some research has suggested that women may be
more critical of obesity than are men. Only a few studies have
assessed gender differences in the tendency to discriminate against
overweight individuals. Although the evidence is mixed, research
has suggested that women are often more likely to evaluate the
overweight as less desirable (e.g., Decker, 1987). More specifically,
Pingitore et al. (1994) found that women who were highly
satisfied with their body weight and who considered body awareness
as central to their self-concept responded with the most
negativity toward overweight job applicants. This is not surprising
given that research has suggested that women may be more critical
of other women in general than are men (e.g., Graves & Powell,
1995; Mathison, 1986; Staines, Tavris, & Jayaratne, 1974). King,
Hebl, and Kazama (2005) suggested that this may be the case
especially in organizational contexts in which women tend to
occupy lower status positions and often compete for status and
recognition. For example, compared with men, women tend to
hold other women to higher standards of competence for hiring
decisions (Biernat & Fuegen, 2001; Graves & Powell, 1995), be
more concerned with other women’s qualifications (Heilman &
Herlihy, 1984), be more biased in selection decisions (Brown &
Geis, 1984), and be more critical of assertive female employees
(Mathison, 1986). Furthermore, it may be the case that averageweight
women are particularly likely to stigmatize obese women.
Kerr, Hymes, Anderson, and Weathers (1995) suggested that
members of marginalized groups are most likely to reject deviant
members of their group in an effort to distance themselves from
that identity. Taken together, previous research has suggested that,
in some contexts, female trainers may be more likely than male
trainers to derogate other female trainees.
The Present Investigation
The stereotypes that are commonly associated with obesity
likely give rise to negative ability and effort-based expectations
across work contexts. Consequently, we hypothesized the following:
Hypothesis 1a: Compared with trainers of average-weight
trainees, trainers of obese trainees will have lower expecta

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

more time and opportunity to respond (e.g., Rosenthal, 1973;Snyder & Swann, 1978). The third part constitutes the reactions ofthe targets to the differential treatment. For a self-fulfilling prophecyto occur, targets must (consciously or unconsciously) followthe script initiated by the leader (Neuberg, 1994, 1996; Smith,Neuberg, Judice, & Biesanz, 1997).Models of self-fulfilling prophecy effects in the workplace (e.g.,Eden, 1990a) are similar to those developed in the educationliterature: Expectations influence manager, leader, or trainer behaviorand treatment of subordinates, which in turn lead to subordinateself-expectancy and increased (or decreased) subordinatemotivation and effort. Ultimately, the change in effort leads toincreased (or decreased) subordinate performance (e.g., Eden &Shani, 1982).Stigma and the Self-Fulfilling ProphecyStigmatized individuals, or those who bear a mark that indicatesa devalued identity (e.g., individuals who are disabled, ethnicminorities, obese; Goffman, 1963), are often targets of negativestereotypes (Crocker, Major, & Steele, 1998). Despite the inherentassociation between stereotypes and expectations, the role ofstigma in leading to self-fulfilling prophecies has received limitedresearch attention (Jussim, Palumbo, Chatman, Madon, & Smith,2000; for exceptions, see Snyder, Tanke, & Berscheid, 1977;Word, Zanna, & Cooper, 1974). Educational research has providedevidence of lowered expectations and differential treatment becauseof race (e.g., Rubovits & Maehr, 1973) and socioeconomicstatus (e.g., Rist, 1970). However, this research tends to be quasiexperimental,making it difficult to isolate the role of stigma ingenerating the negative expectations and subsequent self-fulfillingprophecies. Thus, the aim of the present research was to add to thetraining and stigma literature by examining self-fulfilling prophecieselicited by stigma in training interactions. In this study, wefocused on a stigmatized characteristic that plagues over half ofAmerica’s adults: obesity.The Stigma of ObesityResearch indicates that obese individuals are viewed as socialdeviants and are blamed for their condition (e.g., Crandall, 1994;DeJong, 1993; Rothblum, 1992; Weiner, Perry, & Magnusson,1988). In comparison to average-weight individuals, obese individualstend to be stereotyped as less hard working, less strong,less self-restrained, and less stable (e.g., Hebl, 1997), as well asslower, sloppier, and lazier (Ryckman, Robbins, Kaczor, & Gold,1989). In organizations, obese individuals face discrimination inmany domains (Roehling, 1999). Obese individuals are regardedas less desirable employees and are classified as having lowercompetency, productivity, and industriousness (Larkin & Pines,1979). In studies in which weight is experimentally manipulated,dibandingkan dengan rata-rata-berat individu, obesitas individu yangkurang kemungkinan untuk menjadi dipekerjakan (Pingitore, Dugoni, Tindale, & musim semi,1994), lebih mungkin akan diberikan ke penjualan paling tidak diinginkanwilayah (Bellizzi & Hasty, 1998; Bellizzi, Klassen, & Belonax,1989), lebih kecil kemungkinannya untuk menerima promosi (Rothblum, merek, Miller,& Oetjen, 1990), dan lebih mungkin untuk menerima layanan pelanggan miskin(Raja, Shapiro, Hebl, Singletary, & Turner, 2006). Dengan demikian, kamidiantisipasi yang negatif stereotip stigma trainee, ditrainee obesitas tertentu, akan negatif mempengaruhi harapan pelatihdan pada akhirnya mempengaruhi efektivitas pelatihan.Gender dan ramalanKarena fokusnya stigma obesitas dalam interaksi pelatihan,Penelitian ini menawarkan suasana yang unik untuk menilai genderperbedaan dalam nubuatan-nubuatan yang memuaskan diri sendiri. Kebanyakan penelitian harapandilakukan di kelas tidak menghasilkan perbedaan gender sistematis(Hall & Briton, 1993). Sebaliknya, organisasi penelitianterutama mengidentifikasi harapan efek sebagai terjadi di dalam laki-lakipemimpin (misalnya, Dvir, Eden, & Banjo, 1995; McNatt, 2000; Sutton &Woodman, 1989). Namun, sejumlah studi (e.g.,Davidson & Eden, 2000) dan meta-analisis (Kierein &Emas, 2000; McNatt, 2000) menunjukkan bahwa, meskipun kurang umum,pemimpin perempuan dapat menginduksi self-fulfilling nubuatan dalam organisasiinteractions. However, the targets in the presentstudy—obese females—belong to a group that may face the mostnegative expectations from a female trainer.In general, some research has suggested that women may bemore critical of obesity than are men. Only a few studies haveassessed gender differences in the tendency to discriminate againstoverweight individuals. Although the evidence is mixed, researchhas suggested that women are often more likely to evaluate theoverweight as less desirable (e.g., Decker, 1987). More specifically,Pingitore et al. (1994) found that women who were highlysatisfied with their body weight and who considered body awarenessas central to their self-concept responded with the mostnegativity toward overweight job applicants. This is not surprisinggiven that research has suggested that women may be more criticalof other women in general than are men (e.g., Graves & Powell,1995; Mathison, 1986; Staines, Tavris, & Jayaratne, 1974). King,Hebl, and Kazama (2005) suggested that this may be the caseespecially in organizational contexts in which women tend tooccupy lower status positions and often compete for status andrecognition. For example, compared with men, women tend tohold other women to higher standards of competence for hiringdecisions (Biernat & Fuegen, 2001; Graves & Powell, 1995), bemore concerned with other women’s qualifications (Heilman &Herlihy, 1984), be more biased in selection decisions (Brown &Geis, 1984), and be more critical of assertive female employees(Mathison, 1986). Furthermore, it may be the case that averageweightwomen are particularly likely to stigmatize obese women.Kerr, Hymes, Anderson, and Weathers (1995) suggested thatmembers of marginalized groups are most likely to reject deviantmembers of their group in an effort to distance themselves fromthat identity. Taken together, previous research has suggested that,in some contexts, female trainers may be more likely than maletrainers to derogate other female trainees.The Present InvestigationThe stereotypes that are commonly associated with obesitylikely give rise to negative ability and effort-based expectationsacross work contexts. Consequently, we hypothesized the following:Hypothesis 1a: Compared with trainers of average-weighttrainees, trainers of obese trainees will have lower expecta