Introduction
As the IBM Study shows (
see
Ideas and perspectives 9.1), organisations today view
themselves less and less as stable and enduring institutions, and more and more as ‘work
in progress’ subject to continuing and continuous change. Chapter 8 described how
the Planned approach to change dominated the theory and practice of change manage-
ment from the late 1940s to the early 1980s. Since then, the Emergent approach has taken
over from the Planned approach as the dominant approach to change. This approach
starts from the assumption that change is not a linear process or a one-off isolated event
but is a continuous, open-ended, cumulative and unpredictable process of aligning and
re-aligning an organisation to its changing environment (Falconer, 2002). Weick (2000:
225) comments as follows on studies of Emergent change:
The recurring story is one of autonomous initiatives that bubble up internally; con-
tinuous emergent change; steady learning from both failure and success; strategy
implementation that is replaced by strategy making; the appearance of innovations
that are unplanned, unforeseen and unexpected; and small actions that have surpris-
ingly large consequences.
Advocates of Emergent change argue that it is more suitable to the turbulent and
continually changing environment in which firms now operate. They reject both the
Part 2
Strategy development and change management: past, present and future
362
Nearly all CEOs are adapting their business models – two-thirds are implement-
ing extensive innovations.
More than 40 percent are changing their enterprise
models to be more collaborative.
CEOs are moving aggressively toward global business designs, deeply changing
capabilities and partnering more extensively.
CEOs have moved beyond the
cliché of globalization, and organizations of all sizes are reconfiguring to take
advantage of global integration opportunities.
Financial outperformers are making bolder plays. These companies anticipate
more change, and manage it better.
They are also more global in their business
designs, partner more extensively and choose more disruptive forms of business
model innovation.
These findings – across industries, geographies and organizations of different sizes
– paint a surprisingly similar view of the traits that we believe will be needed for
future success. At its core, the Enterprise of the Future i
s...
•
Hungry for change.
•
Innovative beyond customer imagination.
•
Globally integrated.
•
Disruptive by nature.
•
Genuine, not just generous.
Source
: IBM (2008)
The Enterprise of the Future: IBM Global CEO Study
, pp. 7– 8.
incremental approach of Planned change, which they characterise as individually separate
and distinct change-events, and the large-scale, unexpected, discontinuous and reactive
approach of those who espouse the punctuated equilibrium model. Instead, they argue
that organisations must continually and synergistically adapt their internal practices
and behaviour in real time to changing external conditions (Beer and Nohria, 2000).
Consequently, ‘The art of leadership in the management field would seem to lie in the
ability to shape the process [of change] in the long term rather than direct single episodes’
(Pettigrew and Whipp, 1991: 143). As Orlikowski (1996: 65 – 6) maintains:
In this perspective, organizational transformation is not portrayed as a drama staged
by deliberate directors with predefined scripts and choreographed moves, or the
inevitable outcome of a technological logic, or a sudden discontinuity that funda-
mentally invalidates the status quo. Rather, organizational transformation is seen
here to be an ongoing improvisation enacted by organizational actors trying to make
sense of and act coherently in the world
....
Each variation of a given form is not an
abrupt or discrete event, neither is it, by itself, discontinuous. Rather, through a series
of ongoing and situated accommodations, adaptations, and alterations (that draw on
previous variations and mediate future ones), sufficient modifications may be enacted
over time that fundamental changes are achieved. There is no deliberate orchestra-
tion of change here, no technological inevitability, no dramatic discontinuity, just
recurrent and reciprocal variations in practice over time. Each shift in practice creates
the conditions for further breakdowns, unanticipated outcomes, and innovations,
which in their turn are responded to with more variations. And such variations are
ongoing; there is no beginning or end point in this change process.
In a similar vein, Caldwell (2006: 77) refers to Emergent change as ‘a long-term com-
plex and incremental process of shaping how change unfolds over time’. For Brown and
Eisenhardt (1997: 28) change is ‘neither incremental nor radical’ but ‘a third kind of pro-
cess’ that lies somewhere in between. Though they may disagree with Caldwell about
the ‘size’ of change, all three would agree to view change as occurring continuously and
synergistically with each change initiative being linked to the critical path of the organ-
isation rather than being a separate or rare event. This is why the advocates of Emergent
change argue that it needs to be viewed holistically and contextually (Mintzberg and
Westley, 1992). Furthermore, and just as importantly, proponents of Emergent change
recognise that organisations are power systems and, consequently, change is a political
process whereby different groups in an organisation struggle to protect or enhance their
own interests (Orlikowski and Yates, 2006).
To understand the nature of Emergent change, this chapter begins by presenting the
case against the Planned approach and the rise of the Emergent perspective on change.
It then goes on to examine the main arguments for, and characteristics of, Emergent
change, including those put forward by complexity theorists. This will show that, although
they do not always agree with each other, the advocates of Emergent change are united
by the emphasis they place on organisational structure, culture and learning, and their
perspective on managerial behaviour and the role of power and politics in the change
process. Following this, the chapter presents the recipes for change put forward by
proponents of Emergent change. It then goes on to examine the different perspectives
on change agents and their role. In summarising the Emergent approach, it is argued
Chapter 9
Developments in change management
363
that, though it has a number of distinct strengths, like Planned change it is a flawed
and partial approach to change. In conclusion, it is argued that despite the large body of
literature devoted to the topic of change management, and the many tools and techniques
available to change agents, there is considerable debate and little agreement regarding
the most appropriate approach. One thing is clear: neither the Emergent approach nor
the Planned approach is suitable for all situations and circumstances.
From Planned to Emergent change
As was shown in Chapter 8, the Planned approach to change has been, and remains,
highly influential, not just in the USA but across the world (Fagenson-Eland
et al
, 2004).
It is still far and away the best developed, documented and supported approach to change.
This is because of the custodianship of the Organization Development (OD) movement
in the USA. OD has taken Kurt Lewin’s original concept of Planned change and turned
it into a thriving consultancy industry with its own standards, accreditation procedures
and membership (Cummings and Worley, 1997). In doing so, Lewin’s conception of Planned
change as applying to small-group, human-centred change has been extended to include
organisation-wide change initiatives. This has led to some confusion between Planned
(participative) change as promoted by the OD movement and Planned (directive–
transformational) change as promoted by some elements of the strategic planning move-
ment (Beer and Nohria, 2000; Mintzberg
et al
, 1998a, 1998b).
This section, following on from the previous chapter, is concerned with the Planned
approach to change as promoted by Lewin and the OD movement and which, from the
late 1940s to the early 1980s, was the dominant approach to change, especially in the USA.
As was discussed in Chapter 8, from the early 1980s onwards, it has faced increasing levels
of criticism as to its appropriateness and efficacy, especially in terms of its ability to cope
with continuous change, its emphasis on incremental change, its neglect of organisational
conflict and politics, and its advocacy of a ‘one best way’ approach to change.
It was the rise of Japanese competitiveness and the apparent eclipse of Western industry
in the late 1970s that precipitated the questioning of existing approaches to structuring,
managing and changing organisations (e.g. Pascale and Athos, 1982; Peters and Waterman,
1982). Weick (2000: 226 –7) states that the main drawbacks of Planned change were
seen as:
...a
high probability of relapse; uneven diffusion among units; large short-term
losses that are difficult to recover; less suitability for opportunity-driven than
for threat-driven alterations; unanticipated consequences due to limited foresight;
temptations towards hypocrisy (when people talk the talk of revolution but walk
the talk of resistance); adoption of best practices that work best elsewhere because of
a different context; ignorance among top management regarding key contingencies
and capabilities at the front line; and lags in implementation that make the change
outdated before it’s even finished.
For Wilson (1992), it is the increasingly dynamic and uncertain nature of the business
environment that undermines the case for Planned change and underlines the appro-
priateness of the Emergent approach. He also believes that the Planned approach, by
Part 2
Strategy development and change management: past, present and future
364
attempting to lay down timetables,
แนะนำเป็นการศึกษา IBM แสดง(ดูความคิดและมุมมอง 9.1), องค์กรวันนี้ดูตัวเองสถาบันน้อยเป็นมีเสถียรภาพ และยั่งยืน และมาก ขึ้นเป็น ' ทำงานดำเนินการ ต้องดำเนินต่อไปอย่างต่อเนื่อง และเปลี่ยนแปลง บทที่ 8 อธิบายวิธีวิธีการวางแผนการเปลี่ยนครอบงำทฤษฎี และปฏิบัติเปลี่ยนแปลงจัดการ-ติดขัดจาก 2483 ถึงต้นทศวรรษ 1980 ตั้งแต่นั้น มีนำวิธีโผล่ออกมามากกว่าจากวิธีการวางแผนเป็นวิธีการหลักการเปลี่ยนแปลง วิธีการนี้เริ่มต้นจากสมมติฐานที่ว่า เปลี่ยนแปลงไม่เชิงกระบวนการหรือเหตุการณ์ที่แยกใช้ครั้งเดียวแต่เป็นกระบวนการต่อเนื่อง แบบเปิด สะสม และไม่แน่นอนของการจัดตำแหน่ง และอีกตำแหน่งองค์การสิ่งแวดล้อมเปลี่ยนแปลง (Falconer, 2002) Weick (2000:ความคิดเห็นที่ 225) ได้ดังนี้ในการศึกษาของโผล่ออกมาเปลี่ยนแปลง:เรื่องราวเกิดเป็นหนึ่งในโครงการอิสระที่ฟองภายใน คอน-tinuous โผล่ออกมาเปลี่ยน คงเรียนรู้จากความล้มเหลวและความสำเร็จ กลยุทธ์ใช้งานที่ถูกแทนที่ ด้วยการทำกลยุทธ์ ลักษณะของนวัตกรรมที่จะไม่ได้วางแผน ไม่คาดฝัน และไม่คาด คิด และการดำเนินการขนาดเล็กที่มี surpris-ผลขนาดใหญ่ inglyสนับสนุนการเปลี่ยนแปลงที่โผล่ออกมาโต้แย้งว่า ไม่เหมาะกับการปั่นป่วน และเปลี่ยนแปลงสภาพแวดล้อมที่บริษัทตอนนี้มีอย่างต่อเนื่อง พวกเขาปฏิเสธทั้งส่วนที่ 2กลยุทธ์การพัฒนาและเปลี่ยนแปลงการจัดการ: อดีต ปัจจุบัน และอนาคต362CEOs ที่เกือบทั้งหมดจะปรับรูปแบบธุรกิจของพวกเขา – สองในสามจะใช้-กำลังหลากหลายนวัตกรรมมากกว่า 40 เปอร์เซ็นต์มีการเปลี่ยนแปลงองค์กรของพวกเขารูปแบบให้ความร่วมมือมากขึ้นCEOs จะย้ายอุกอาจไปทางออกแบบธุรกิจทั่วโลก การเปลี่ยนแปลงอย่างลึกซึ้งความสามารถและร่วมมือมากขึ้นอย่างกว้างขวางCEOs ได้ย้ายนอกเหนือจากcliché ของโลกาภิวัตน์ และองค์กรทุกขนาดมีกำหนดการจะประโยชน์จากโอกาสทางการขายรวมทั่วโลกOutperformers การเงินจัดทำบทละคร bolder คาดว่าจะมีบริษัทเหล่านี้เพิ่มเติมเปลี่ยนแปลง และจัดการดีกว่าก็มีทั่วโลกมากขึ้นในธุรกิจของพวกเขาออกแบบ พันธมิตรอย่างกว้างขวางมากขึ้น และเลือกรูปแบบขวัญมากกว่าธุรกิจนวัตกรรมรูปแบบค้นพบเหล่านี้ – อุตสาหกรรม geographies และองค์กรขนาดต่าง ๆ– สีที่ดูน่าแปลกใจที่คล้ายคลึงกันของลักษณะที่เราเชื่อว่าจะจำเป็นสำหรับความสำเร็จในอนาคต หลักการ องค์กรในอนาคตที่ฉันs ...•หิวสำหรับการเปลี่ยนแปลง•นวัตกรรมใหม่เหนือจินตนาการของลูกค้า•รวมทั่วโลก•ขวัญ โดยธรรมชาติ•ของแท้ ไม่กว้างขวางเพียงแหล่งที่มา: ไอบีเอ็ม (2008)องค์กรในอนาคต: ศึกษา CEO ทั่วโลก IBMนำ 7-8วิธีการเพิ่มขึ้นของการเปลี่ยนแปลงตามแผน ที่พวกเขา characterise เป็นแต่ละรายการแยกต่างหากและเปลี่ยนแปลงหมด เหตุการณ์ และขนาดใหญ่ คาด ไม่ต่อเนื่อง และปฏิกิริยาวิธีที่เห็นแบบสมดุล punctuated แทน การโต้แย้งthat organisations must continually and synergistically adapt their internal practicesand behaviour in real time to changing external conditions (Beer and Nohria, 2000).Consequently, ‘The art of leadership in the management field would seem to lie in theability to shape the process [of change] in the long term rather than direct single episodes’(Pettigrew and Whipp, 1991: 143). As Orlikowski (1996: 65 – 6) maintains:In this perspective, organizational transformation is not portrayed as a drama stagedby deliberate directors with predefined scripts and choreographed moves, or theinevitable outcome of a technological logic, or a sudden discontinuity that funda-mentally invalidates the status quo. Rather, organizational transformation is seenhere to be an ongoing improvisation enacted by organizational actors trying to makesense of and act coherently in the world....Each variation of a given form is not anabrupt or discrete event, neither is it, by itself, discontinuous. Rather, through a seriesof ongoing and situated accommodations, adaptations, and alterations (that draw onprevious variations and mediate future ones), sufficient modifications may be enactedover time that fundamental changes are achieved. There is no deliberate orchestra-tion of change here, no technological inevitability, no dramatic discontinuity, justrecurrent and reciprocal variations in practice over time. Each shift in practice createsthe conditions for further breakdowns, unanticipated outcomes, and innovations,
which in their turn are responded to with more variations. And such variations are
ongoing; there is no beginning or end point in this change process.
In a similar vein, Caldwell (2006: 77) refers to Emergent change as ‘a long-term com-
plex and incremental process of shaping how change unfolds over time’. For Brown and
Eisenhardt (1997: 28) change is ‘neither incremental nor radical’ but ‘a third kind of pro-
cess’ that lies somewhere in between. Though they may disagree with Caldwell about
the ‘size’ of change, all three would agree to view change as occurring continuously and
synergistically with each change initiative being linked to the critical path of the organ-
isation rather than being a separate or rare event. This is why the advocates of Emergent
change argue that it needs to be viewed holistically and contextually (Mintzberg and
Westley, 1992). Furthermore, and just as importantly, proponents of Emergent change
recognise that organisations are power systems and, consequently, change is a political
process whereby different groups in an organisation struggle to protect or enhance their
own interests (Orlikowski and Yates, 2006).
To understand the nature of Emergent change, this chapter begins by presenting the
case against the Planned approach and the rise of the Emergent perspective on change.
It then goes on to examine the main arguments for, and characteristics of, Emergent
change, including those put forward by complexity theorists. This will show that, although
they do not always agree with each other, the advocates of Emergent change are united
by the emphasis they place on organisational structure, culture and learning, and their
perspective on managerial behaviour and the role of power and politics in the change
process. Following this, the chapter presents the recipes for change put forward by
proponents of Emergent change. It then goes on to examine the different perspectives
on change agents and their role. In summarising the Emergent approach, it is argued
Chapter 9
Developments in change management
363
that, though it has a number of distinct strengths, like Planned change it is a flawed
and partial approach to change. In conclusion, it is argued that despite the large body of
literature devoted to the topic of change management, and the many tools and techniques
available to change agents, there is considerable debate and little agreement regarding
the most appropriate approach. One thing is clear: neither the Emergent approach nor
the Planned approach is suitable for all situations and circumstances.
From Planned to Emergent change
As was shown in Chapter 8, the Planned approach to change has been, and remains,
highly influential, not just in the USA but across the world (Fagenson-Eland
et al
, 2004).
It is still far and away the best developed, documented and supported approach to change.
This is because of the custodianship of the Organization Development (OD) movement
in the USA. OD has taken Kurt Lewin’s original concept of Planned change and turned
it into a thriving consultancy industry with its own standards, accreditation procedures
and membership (Cummings and Worley, 1997). In doing so, Lewin’s conception of Planned
change as applying to small-group, human-centred change has been extended to include
organisation-wide change initiatives. This has led to some confusion between Planned
(participative) change as promoted by the OD movement and Planned (directive–
transformational) change as promoted by some elements of the strategic planning move-
ment (Beer and Nohria, 2000; Mintzberg
et al
, 1998a, 1998b).
This section, following on from the previous chapter, is concerned with the Planned
approach to change as promoted by Lewin and the OD movement and which, from the
late 1940s to the early 1980s, was the dominant approach to change, especially in the USA.
As was discussed in Chapter 8, from the early 1980s onwards, it has faced increasing levels
of criticism as to its appropriateness and efficacy, especially in terms of its ability to cope
with continuous change, its emphasis on incremental change, its neglect of organisational
conflict and politics, and its advocacy of a ‘one best way’ approach to change.
It was the rise of Japanese competitiveness and the apparent eclipse of Western industry
in the late 1970s that precipitated the questioning of existing approaches to structuring,
managing and changing organisations (e.g. Pascale and Athos, 1982; Peters and Waterman,
1982). Weick (2000: 226 –7) states that the main drawbacks of Planned change were
seen as:
...a
high probability of relapse; uneven diffusion among units; large short-term
losses that are difficult to recover; less suitability for opportunity-driven than
for threat-driven alterations; unanticipated consequences due to limited foresight;
temptations towards hypocrisy (when people talk the talk of revolution but walk
the talk of resistance); adoption of best practices that work best elsewhere because of
a different context; ignorance among top management regarding key contingencies
and capabilities at the front line; and lags in implementation that make the change
outdated before it’s even finished.
For Wilson (1992), it is the increasingly dynamic and uncertain nature of the business
environment that undermines the case for Planned change and underlines the appro-
priateness of the Emergent approach. He also believes that the Planned approach, by
Part 2
Strategy development and change management: past, present and future
364
attempting to lay down timetables,
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