is the same for children as for infants, (i.e., there are no instructi terjemahan - is the same for children as for infants, (i.e., there are no instructi Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

is the same for children as for inf

is the same for children as for infants, (i.e., there are no instructions as to what to
attend to and processing is spontaneous).
Table 2 lists the average visual novelty preference scores and the average IQ
scores for each of the three age groupings (2, 3, and 9 years). Weighted mean
averages are listed for the 3-year-olds.
The data in Table 2 are quite clear. For each sample, White children were
significantly different from Black children in IQ. In no case, however, do Whites
and Blacks differ significantly in spontaneous processing.
On the basis of the assumptions that intelligence is processing and that IQ
scores are a measure of knowledge, my interpretation of the results is that Black
people are as intelligent as White people but that some Blacks do not know what
some Whites know. My interpretation does not assume that one culture is superior
or inferior to another but only that people from different cultures may differ in
what they believe their children should be taught. One social policy implication
of such an interpretation is that if we wish to understand the differences in the
knowledge tapped on IQ tests that produces differences in performance between
Blacks and Whites, we must discover the cultural practices that influence the
teaching of particular kinds of knowledge.
According to my theory, the study of culture is the study of what interacts
with processing to produce knowledge in a particular domain. Paradoxically, it is
only by examining culture that the conventional definition of intelligence as IQ
remains relevant. Is it important to understand culture as well as the processing
determinant of IQ? Yes, for two reasons. First, IQ scores predict important life
achievements, and the cultural factor is a significant source of variance in such
prediction. Second, differences among groups in IQ may well involve the cultural
factor. As noted, Black people and White people differ in IQ but do not appear to
differ in spontaneous processing. The implication is that the source of Black-
White differences in IQ is to be sought in the culture.
I suggest five guidelines for studying the influence of culture in the determination of IQ. The first guideline is that the measurement of the culture should
always be accompanied by the measurement of processing. Hart and Risley
(1995), for example, have conducted a landmark longitudinal study of frequency
of verbal stimulation and resulting vocabulary development of children from 1 to
3 years of age. The amount of exposure to language was positively correlated with
vocabulary development and IQ scores of the children at 3 years. Unfortunately,
because no measure of the children's processing of information was included in
the design of the Hart and Risley (1995) investigation, there is no way to estimate
the relative contributions of processing and the culture to the children's ultimate
vocabulary knowledge or IQ. The lesson for future naturalistic or experimental
observations of children's experience is to include measures of processing in
one' s design, so that the differential effects of processing and cultural direction on
knowledge can be assessed.
The second guideline is that the exploration of the influence of culture on
knowledge should begin in the first few years of the child' s life. Empirically, we
know from the Hart and Risley (1995) investigation that large differences in sheer
exposure to important information take place during the first few years. Evidence
also has been presented in the present article that demonstrates that differences in
IQ between Blacks and Whites are present as early as 2 to 3 years of age. Thus,
any manipulation of the culture factor with the goal of preventing a low IQ score
should begin in the first few months and years of life.
The third guideline is fairly obvious. The samples from which we can learn
the most in the search for those aspects of the culture that determine IQ are groups
that differ in IQ but do not differ in spontaneous processing. Likely candidates are
children of the same age that differ in schooling due to arbitrary cutoff dates for
admission to school and children that differ in race.
The fourth guideline is to search for specific techniques that agents of the
culture use to direct a child's attention to information. Saffran, Aslin, and
Newport (1996), for example, have shown that infants at 8 months can segment
words from ongoing speech solely on the basis of the relation between neighboring
speech sounds. But long before 8 months, mothers from various cultures speak
in a more informative manner to their infants than they do to adults by emphasizing
particular sounds (Kuhl et al., 1997). Is it possible that individual differences
in how mothers speak to their infants may influence the infant's subsequent
segmentation of words from ongoing speech, which, in turn, may alter the size or
composition of the child's vocabulary? Vocabulary knowledge, of course, plays a
prominent role in most estimates of IQ.
The fifth guideline is to be eclectic in the search for cultural influences on
knowledge. Theoretically, any variable that produces differences in knowledge
among groups who do not differ in processing is a cultural variable. It does not
matter whether the individuals being studied are humans or animals. It does not
matter if the knowledge in question is complex problem solving or the avoidance
of a shock. Any variance (aside from what is due to processing or error) that
determines human cognition or animal learning may play a part in determining the
cultural factor in IQ.
Although other examples of the search for the cultural sources of knowledge
may be given, the point is that social policy is determined not so much by data but
by the interpretation of data. The assumption that intelligence is processing leads us to search the culture (rather than genetics) for the origins of racial differences
in IQ.
0/5000
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Ke: -
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1: [Salinan]
Disalin!
is the same for children as for infants, (i.e., there are no instructions as to what to
attend to and processing is spontaneous).
Table 2 lists the average visual novelty preference scores and the average IQ
scores for each of the three age groupings (2, 3, and 9 years). Weighted mean
averages are listed for the 3-year-olds.
The data in Table 2 are quite clear. For each sample, White children were
significantly different from Black children in IQ. In no case, however, do Whites
and Blacks differ significantly in spontaneous processing.
On the basis of the assumptions that intelligence is processing and that IQ
scores are a measure of knowledge, my interpretation of the results is that Black
people are as intelligent as White people but that some Blacks do not know what
some Whites know. My interpretation does not assume that one culture is superior
or inferior to another but only that people from different cultures may differ in
what they believe their children should be taught. One social policy implication
of such an interpretation is that if we wish to understand the differences in the
knowledge tapped on IQ tests that produces differences in performance between
Blacks and Whites, we must discover the cultural practices that influence the
teaching of particular kinds of knowledge.
According to my theory, the study of culture is the study of what interacts
with processing to produce knowledge in a particular domain. Paradoxically, it is
only by examining culture that the conventional definition of intelligence as IQ
remains relevant. Is it important to understand culture as well as the processing
determinant of IQ? Yes, for two reasons. First, IQ scores predict important life
achievements, and the cultural factor is a significant source of variance in such
prediction. Second, differences among groups in IQ may well involve the cultural
factor. As noted, Black people and White people differ in IQ but do not appear to
differ in spontaneous processing. The implication is that the source of Black-
White differences in IQ is to be sought in the culture.
I suggest five guidelines for studying the influence of culture in the determination of IQ. The first guideline is that the measurement of the culture should
always be accompanied by the measurement of processing. Hart and Risley
(1995), for example, have conducted a landmark longitudinal study of frequency
of verbal stimulation and resulting vocabulary development of children from 1 to
3 years of age. The amount of exposure to language was positively correlated with
vocabulary development and IQ scores of the children at 3 years. Unfortunately,
because no measure of the children's processing of information was included in
the design of the Hart and Risley (1995) investigation, there is no way to estimate
the relative contributions of processing and the culture to the children's ultimate
vocabulary knowledge or IQ. The lesson for future naturalistic or experimental
observations of children's experience is to include measures of processing in
one' s design, so that the differential effects of processing and cultural direction on
knowledge can be assessed.
The second guideline is that the exploration of the influence of culture on
knowledge should begin in the first few years of the child' s life. Empirically, we
know from the Hart and Risley (1995) investigation that large differences in sheer
exposure to important information take place during the first few years. Evidence
also has been presented in the present article that demonstrates that differences in
IQ between Blacks and Whites are present as early as 2 to 3 years of age. Thus,
any manipulation of the culture factor with the goal of preventing a low IQ score
should begin in the first few months and years of life.
The third guideline is fairly obvious. The samples from which we can learn
the most in the search for those aspects of the culture that determine IQ are groups
that differ in IQ but do not differ in spontaneous processing. Likely candidates are
children of the same age that differ in schooling due to arbitrary cutoff dates for
admission to school and children that differ in race.
The fourth guideline is to search for specific techniques that agents of the
culture use to direct a child's attention to information. Saffran, Aslin, and
Newport (1996), for example, have shown that infants at 8 months can segment
words from ongoing speech solely on the basis of the relation between neighboring
speech sounds. But long before 8 months, mothers from various cultures speak
in a more informative manner to their infants than they do to adults by emphasizing
particular sounds (Kuhl et al., 1997). Is it possible that individual differences
in how mothers speak to their infants may influence the infant's subsequent
segmentation of words from ongoing speech, which, in turn, may alter the size or
composition of the child's vocabulary? Vocabulary knowledge, of course, plays a
prominent role in most estimates of IQ.
The fifth guideline is to be eclectic in the search for cultural influences on
knowledge. Theoretically, any variable that produces differences in knowledge
among groups who do not differ in processing is a cultural variable. It does not
matter whether the individuals being studied are humans or animals. It does not
matter if the knowledge in question is complex problem solving or the avoidance
of a shock. Any variance (aside from what is due to processing or error) that
determines human cognition or animal learning may play a part in determining the
cultural factor in IQ.
Although other examples of the search for the cultural sources of knowledge
may be given, the point is that social policy is determined not so much by data but
by the interpretation of data. The assumption that intelligence is processing leads us to search the culture (rather than genetics) for the origins of racial differences
in IQ.
Sedang diterjemahkan, harap tunggu..
Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:[Salinan]
Disalin!
adalah sama untuk anak-anak untuk bayi, (yaitu, tidak ada petunjuk seperti apa yang harus
menghadiri dan pengolahan spontan).
Tabel 2 daftar nilai rata-rata visual yang baru preferensi dan IQ rata-rata
skor untuk masing-masing tiga kelompok usia ( 2, 3, dan 9 tahun). Rata-rata tertimbang
rata-rata terdaftar untuk 3-year-olds.
Data pada Tabel 2 cukup jelas. Untuk setiap sampel, anak-anak Putih yang
signifikan berbeda dari anak-anak hitam di IQ. Dalam hal, bagaimanapun, melakukan Whites
dan kulit hitam berbeda secara signifikan dalam pengolahan spontan.
Atas dasar asumsi bahwa kecerdasan adalah pengolahan dan bahwa IQ
skor adalah ukuran pengetahuan, interpretasi saya hasil adalah bahwa Black
orang secerdas Putih orang tetapi beberapa orang kulit hitam tidak tahu apa yang
beberapa Whites tahu. Interpretasi saya tidak menganggap bahwa salah satu budaya unggul
atau lebih rendah daripada yang lain tetapi hanya bahwa orang-orang dari budaya yang berbeda mungkin berbeda dalam
apa yang mereka yakini anak-anak mereka harus diajarkan. Salah satu implikasi kebijakan sosial
penafsiran seperti itu adalah bahwa jika kita ingin memahami perbedaan dalam
pengetahuan mengetuk tes IQ yang menghasilkan perbedaan kinerja antara
kulit hitam dan kulit putih, kita harus menemukan praktek-praktek budaya yang mempengaruhi
pengajaran jenis tertentu pengetahuan.
Menurut teori saya, studi budaya adalah studi tentang apa yang berinteraksi
dengan proses untuk menghasilkan pengetahuan dalam domain tertentu. Paradoksnya, itu
hanya dengan memeriksa budaya bahwa definisi konvensional kecerdasan IQ
tetap relevan. Apakah penting untuk memahami budaya serta pengolahan
penentu IQ? Ya, karena dua alasan. Pertama, nilai IQ memprediksi kehidupan yang penting
prestasi, dan faktor budaya merupakan sumber signifikan dari varian dalam seperti
prediksi. Kedua, perbedaan antara kelompok-kelompok di IQ mungkin melibatkan budaya
faktor. Sebagaimana dicatat, orang hitam dan orang-orang putih berbeda dalam IQ tetapi tidak tampak
berbeda dalam proses spontan. Implikasinya adalah bahwa sumber Black
perbedaan Putih di IQ harus dicari dalam budaya.
Saya sarankan lima pedoman untuk mempelajari pengaruh budaya dalam penentuan IQ. Pedoman pertama adalah bahwa pengukuran budaya harus
selalu disertai dengan pengukuran pengolahan. Hart dan Risley
(1995), misalnya, telah melakukan studi longitudinal tengara frekuensi
stimulasi verbal dan mengakibatkan perkembangan kosakata anak dari 1 sampai
3 tahun. Jumlah paparan bahasa berkorelasi positif dengan
pengembangan dan IQ skor kosakata anak-anak di 3 tahun. Sayangnya,
karena tidak ada ukuran pengolahan anak-anak dari informasi termasuk dalam
desain Hart dan Risley (1995) investigasi, tidak ada cara untuk memperkirakan
kontribusi relatif pengolahan dan budaya untuk akhir anak-anak
pengetahuan kosakata atau IQ. Pelajaran untuk naturalistik atau eksperimental masa depan
pengamatan pengalaman anak-anak adalah untuk mencakup langkah-langkah pengolahan di
desain seseorang, sehingga efek diferensial pengolahan dan arah budaya pada
pengetahuan dapat dinilai.
Pedoman kedua adalah bahwa eksplorasi pengaruh budaya pada
pengetahuan harus dimulai dalam beberapa tahun pertama kehidupan anak. Secara empiris, kita
tahu dari Hart dan Risley (1995) penyelidikan bahwa perbedaan besar dalam belaka
paparan informasi penting berlangsung selama beberapa tahun pertama. Bukti
juga telah disajikan dalam pasal ini yang menunjukkan bahwa perbedaan
IQ antara kulit hitam dan kulit putih yang hadir sejak 2 sampai 3 tahun. Dengan demikian,
setiap manipulasi faktor budaya dengan tujuan mencegah skor IQ rendah
harus dimulai dalam beberapa bulan dan tahun kehidupan pertama.
Pedoman ketiga adalah cukup jelas. Sampel dari mana kita dapat belajar
paling dalam mencari aspek-aspek budaya yang menentukan IQ adalah kelompok
yang berbeda dalam IQ tetapi tidak berbeda dalam proses spontan. Kandidat besar kemungkinan
anak-anak pada usia yang sama yang berbeda dalam sekolah karena tanggal cutoff sewenang-wenang untuk
masuk ke sekolah dan anak-anak yang berbeda dalam balapan.
Pedoman keempat adalah untuk mencari teknik-teknik khusus yang agen dari
penggunaan budaya untuk mengarahkan perhatian anak terhadap informasi . Saffran, Aslin, dan
Newport (1996), misalnya, telah menunjukkan bahwa bayi pada usia 8 bulan dapat mengelompokkan
kata-kata dari pidato berlangsung semata-mata atas dasar hubungan antara tetangga
suara pidato. Namun jauh sebelum 8 bulan, ibu dari berbagai budaya berbicara
dengan cara yang lebih informatif kepada bayi mereka daripada yang mereka lakukan untuk orang dewasa dengan menekankan
suara tertentu (Kuhl et al., 1997). Apakah mungkin bahwa perbedaan individu
dalam cara ibu berbicara kepada bayi mereka dapat mempengaruhi berikutnya bayi
segmentasi kata dari pidato yang sedang berlangsung, yang, pada gilirannya, dapat mengubah ukuran atau
komposisi kosakata anak? Pengetahuan kosa kata, tentu saja, memainkan
peran penting dalam perkiraan sebagian besar IQ.
Pedoman kelima adalah menjadi eklektik dalam mencari pengaruh budaya pada
pengetahuan. Secara teoritis, setiap variabel yang menghasilkan perbedaan pengetahuan
antara kelompok-kelompok yang tidak berbeda dalam pengolahan adalah variabel budaya. Tidak
peduli apakah orang yang diteliti adalah manusia atau hewan. Tidak
masalah jika pengetahuan yang dimaksud adalah pemecahan masalah yang kompleks atau menghindari
kejutan. Setiap varians (selain dari apa yang disebabkan pengolahan atau kesalahan) yang
menentukan kognisi manusia atau hewan pembelajaran dapat berperan dalam menentukan
faktor budaya dalam IQ.
Meskipun contoh-contoh lain dari pencarian sumber-sumber budaya pengetahuan
dapat diberikan, titik adalah bahwa kebijakan sosial ditentukan tidak begitu banyak oleh data tetapi
dengan interpretasi data. Asumsi bahwa kecerdasan adalah proses menuntun kita untuk mencari budaya (bukan genetika) untuk asal-usul perbedaan ras
dalam IQ.
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