Structural Effects in Education 129by a shortage of appropriate eviden terjemahan - Structural Effects in Education 129by a shortage of appropriate eviden Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

Structural Effects in Education 129

Structural Effects in Education 129
by a shortage of appropriate evidence that encourages ransacking the code sheets of large
surveys to construct measures of convenience. When this occurs, evidence and method constrain
substance. The rigidity occurs because of an implicit belief that school organization and
process can be appropriately represented by time-frozen, global, aggregate, and averaged
measures of school characteristics made to stand for the situational, contingent, and temporal
events and activities of schooling. What is substantively important about school organization
and schooling, moreover, needs to be argued in its own terms rather than selected from the
cafeteria of survey offerings.
A second source of rigidity derives from Durkheim's conception of social facts, where
the order of causality runs from structure to individual conduct. The prevailing policy environment
continues to be hospitable to studies that investigate the impact of schools on achievement,
but that does not justify conceptually the causal priority of school structure. Elements of
schooling and of school structure can be understood, for example, as results rather than as
causes of social action and interaction as participants in schools over time follow the routines
and confront the contingencies arising in their work. Although certain structural aspects of
school organization have remained remarkably stable since the 19th century (e.g., age grading,
classrooms as sites for teaching, textbook-driven instruction), other aspects can be seen
both to shape and to respond to alterations in the course of events, to shocks to the system, to
the evaluation and rethinking of customary ways of doing things, and the like. Schools, like
other organizations, deal with the continuity, change, and disruption of circumstances; for this
reason, adopting the structure-conduct sequence of causality does injustice to our understanding
of schools and of schooling, even in longitudinal surveys. Though such surveys take the
passage of time into account, they usually observe changes in outcomes (e.g., gain scores)
while treating school characteristics as unchanging. The impact on individuals and on the
structure of school organization itself, caused by changes in the events and practices of schooling,
thereby escapes attention.
Following a substantive agenda different from what is usually found in conventional
treatments of structural effects, a number of studies have treated the events and processes of
schooling. Consider some apposite examples. Metz (1986) showed how teachers and school
district officials created varied curricular, instructional, and evaluational arrangements (i.e.,
structures and practices based on newly formulated instructional philosophies) in three magnet
schools, following shifts in their racial/ethnic composition, responding to opportunities
and problems arising from court-ordered desegregation. Barr and Dreeben (1983) described
how teachers established and modified classroom reading group arrangements (i.e., creating
new structures) to deal with both the initial ability distribution of classes and variations in
students' learning trajectories over the school year. DeLany (1991) demonstrated how a school
administrator charged with responsibilities for time scheduling and for course scheduling coped
with unanticipated changes in the size of enrollment and in the composition of the teaching
staff, thereby shifting past patterns of both curricular offerings and student course-taking.
Bidwell and Quiroz (1991) showed how different types of workplace control (domination,
rules, consultation, and markets) emerged out of attempts by school personnel to deal with
contingencies arising from differences in school size and in client power and how these intervening
modes of control then influenced teachers' orientations to and conduct of instruction
(Bidwell, Frank, & Quiroz, 1997).
These examples portray teachers and school officials dealing with the properties of school
populations and other circumstances, not by construing them as indices of climate, but as
organizational arrangements and modes of conducting work that in turn influence schools'
internal operation and student outcomes. They evoke a sense of schools as active organiza



130 Robert Dreeben
tions, reminiscent of older organizational studies, using evidence collected specifically for the
purposes of the investigation (e.g., strategic comparisons of cases) without relying mainly on
the available large surveys. Yet not all conceptions of school organization concentrate on the
internal workings of schools or on mechanisms construed in such terms. With reference to the
most stable aspects of schools and schooling, for example, the institutional perspective has
drawn attention to how schools are linked structurally to the impersonal systems of the modern
economy and the nation-state (Meyer & Rowan, 1978; Weber, 1978). Those linkages can
be identified more readily from analyses of historical developments in the larger society and
in organizations (e.g., demographic patterns, technological developments, social movements,
governmental actions, shifts in educational demand, migration; [Craig. 1981; Stinchcombe,
1965]) than from the locked-in-time indices usually employed in structural effects arguments.
Abbott's (1997) assessment of general sociology seems appropriate to the area of school
effects: "Most of our current empirical work concerns decontextualized facts with only a tenuous
connection to process, relationship, and action" (p. 1158). That area of investigation has
been dominated by, though not limited to, a kind of structural effects reasoning in which the
"decontextualized facts" of global and aggregate indices have stood for both structure and
process, the latter frequently identified more by conjecture than by examination, and in which
causality has been considered to be unidirectional. These are substantive difficulties that cannot
be addressed simply by employing alternate methods of studying school organization.
Their resolution requires devoting attention to substantive conceptual agendas of school organization
and schooling.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. I am grateful to Rebecca Barr, Charles E. Bidwell, and John W. Meyer
for their valuable readings and comments on an earlier draft of this chapter.

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Structural Effects in Education 129
by a shortage of appropriate evidence that encourages ransacking the code sheets of large
surveys to construct measures of convenience. When this occurs, evidence and method constrain
substance. The rigidity occurs because of an implicit belief that school organization and
process can be appropriately represented by time-frozen, global, aggregate, and averaged
measures of school characteristics made to stand for the situational, contingent, and temporal
events and activities of schooling. What is substantively important about school organization
and schooling, moreover, needs to be argued in its own terms rather than selected from the
cafeteria of survey offerings.
A second source of rigidity derives from Durkheim's conception of social facts, where
the order of causality runs from structure to individual conduct. The prevailing policy environment
continues to be hospitable to studies that investigate the impact of schools on achievement,
but that does not justify conceptually the causal priority of school structure. Elements of
schooling and of school structure can be understood, for example, as results rather than as
causes of social action and interaction as participants in schools over time follow the routines
and confront the contingencies arising in their work. Although certain structural aspects of
school organization have remained remarkably stable since the 19th century (e.g., age grading,
classrooms as sites for teaching, textbook-driven instruction), other aspects can be seen
both to shape and to respond to alterations in the course of events, to shocks to the system, to
the evaluation and rethinking of customary ways of doing things, and the like. Schools, like
other organizations, deal with the continuity, change, and disruption of circumstances; for this
reason, adopting the structure-conduct sequence of causality does injustice to our understanding
of schools and of schooling, even in longitudinal surveys. Though such surveys take the
passage of time into account, they usually observe changes in outcomes (e.g., gain scores)
while treating school characteristics as unchanging. The impact on individuals and on the
structure of school organization itself, caused by changes in the events and practices of schooling,
thereby escapes attention.
Following a substantive agenda different from what is usually found in conventional
treatments of structural effects, a number of studies have treated the events and processes of
schooling. Consider some apposite examples. Metz (1986) showed how teachers and school
district officials created varied curricular, instructional, and evaluational arrangements (i.e.,
structures and practices based on newly formulated instructional philosophies) in three magnet
schools, following shifts in their racial/ethnic composition, responding to opportunities
and problems arising from court-ordered desegregation. Barr and Dreeben (1983) described
how teachers established and modified classroom reading group arrangements (i.e., creating
new structures) to deal with both the initial ability distribution of classes and variations in
students' learning trajectories over the school year. DeLany (1991) demonstrated how a school
administrator charged with responsibilities for time scheduling and for course scheduling coped
with unanticipated changes in the size of enrollment and in the composition of the teaching
staff, thereby shifting past patterns of both curricular offerings and student course-taking.
Bidwell and Quiroz (1991) showed how different types of workplace control (domination,
rules, consultation, and markets) emerged out of attempts by school personnel to deal with
contingencies arising from differences in school size and in client power and how these intervening
modes of control then influenced teachers' orientations to and conduct of instruction
(Bidwell, Frank, & Quiroz, 1997).
These examples portray teachers and school officials dealing with the properties of school
populations and other circumstances, not by construing them as indices of climate, but as
organizational arrangements and modes of conducting work that in turn influence schools'
internal operation and student outcomes. They evoke a sense of schools as active organiza



130 Robert Dreeben
tions, reminiscent of older organizational studies, using evidence collected specifically for the
purposes of the investigation (e.g., strategic comparisons of cases) without relying mainly on
the available large surveys. Yet not all conceptions of school organization concentrate on the
internal workings of schools or on mechanisms construed in such terms. With reference to the
most stable aspects of schools and schooling, for example, the institutional perspective has
drawn attention to how schools are linked structurally to the impersonal systems of the modern
economy and the nation-state (Meyer & Rowan, 1978; Weber, 1978). Those linkages can
be identified more readily from analyses of historical developments in the larger society and
in organizations (e.g., demographic patterns, technological developments, social movements,
governmental actions, shifts in educational demand, migration; [Craig. 1981; Stinchcombe,
1965]) than from the locked-in-time indices usually employed in structural effects arguments.
Abbott's (1997) assessment of general sociology seems appropriate to the area of school
effects: "Most of our current empirical work concerns decontextualized facts with only a tenuous
connection to process, relationship, and action" (p. 1158). That area of investigation has
been dominated by, though not limited to, a kind of structural effects reasoning in which the
"decontextualized facts" of global and aggregate indices have stood for both structure and
process, the latter frequently identified more by conjecture than by examination, and in which
causality has been considered to be unidirectional. These are substantive difficulties that cannot
be addressed simply by employing alternate methods of studying school organization.
Their resolution requires devoting attention to substantive conceptual agendas of school organization
and schooling.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. I am grateful to Rebecca Barr, Charles E. Bidwell, and John W. Meyer
for their valuable readings and comments on an earlier draft of this chapter.

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Efek struktural dalam Pendidikan 129
oleh kekurangan bukti yang tepat yang mendorong menggeledah lembar kode besar
survei untuk membangun langkah-langkah kenyamanan. Ketika ini terjadi, bukti dan metode membatasi
substansi. Kekakuan terjadi karena adanya keyakinan implisit bahwa organisasi dan sekolah
proses dapat tepat diwakili oleh waktu-beku, global, agregat, dan rata-rata
ukuran karakteristik sekolah dibuat untuk berdiri untuk situasional, kontingen, dan temporal
acara dan kegiatan sekolah. Apa yang substantif penting tentang organisasi sekolah
dan sekolah, apalagi, perlu diperdebatkan secara sendiri dan bukan dipilih dari
kantin dari penawaran survei.
Sumber kedua kekakuan berasal dari konsepsi Durkheim fakta sosial, di mana
urutan kausalitas berjalan dari struktur perilaku individu. Lingkungan kebijakan yang berlaku
terus menjadi ramah terhadap studi yang menyelidiki dampak sekolah terhadap prestasi,
tapi itu tidak membenarkan konseptual prioritas kausal struktur sekolah. Unsur-unsur
sekolah dan struktur sekolah dapat dipahami, misalnya, sebagai hasil bukan sebagai
penyebab aksi sosial dan interaksi sebagai peserta sekolah dari waktu ke waktu mengikuti rutinitas
dan menghadapi kontijensi dalam pekerjaan mereka. Meskipun aspek struktural tertentu
organisasi sekolah tetap sangat stabil sejak abad ke-19 (misalnya, usia grading,
ruang kelas sebagai tempat untuk mengajar, instruksi buku-driven), aspek-aspek lain dapat dilihat
baik untuk membentuk dan untuk menanggapi perubahan dalam perjalanan peristiwa, guncangan ke sistem, untuk
evaluasi dan pemikiran ulang cara adat dalam melakukan sesuatu, dan sejenisnya. Sekolah, seperti
organisasi lain, berurusan dengan kontinuitas, perubahan, dan gangguan keadaan; untuk ini
alasan, mengadopsi struktur-perilaku urutan kausalitas tidak adil untuk pemahaman kita
tentang sekolah dan pendidikan, bahkan dalam survei longitudinal. Meskipun survei tersebut mengambil
perjalanan waktu ke rekening, mereka biasanya mengamati perubahan dalam hasil (misalnya, memperoleh skor)
sementara memperlakukan karakteristik sekolah sebagai tidak berubah. Dampak terhadap individu dan pada
struktur organisasi sekolah itu sendiri, yang disebabkan oleh perubahan dalam peristiwa dan praktik pendidikan,
sehingga luput dari perhatian.
Setelah agenda substantif berbeda dari apa yang biasanya ditemukan dalam konvensional
perawatan efek struktural, sejumlah studi telah diperlakukan peristiwa dan proses
pendidikan. Pertimbangkan beberapa contoh tepat. Metz (1986) menunjukkan bagaimana guru dan sekolah
pejabat kabupaten menciptakan kurikuler bervariasi, instruksional, dan pengaturan evaluational (yaitu,
struktur dan praktek berdasarkan baru dirumuskan filosofi pembelajaran) dalam tiga magnet
sekolah, mengikuti pergeseran dalam komposisi ras / etnis mereka, menanggapi peluang
dan masalah yang timbul dari desegregasi diperintahkan pengadilan. Barr dan Dreeben (1983) dijelaskan
bagaimana guru didirikan dan dimodifikasi kelas membaca pengaturan kelompok (yaitu, menciptakan
struktur baru) untuk menangani dengan baik distribusi kemampuan awal kelas dan variasi
lintasan belajar siswa selama tahun sekolah. Delany (1991) menunjukkan bagaimana sebuah sekolah
administrator dibebankan dengan tanggung jawab untuk penjadwalan waktu dan penjadwalan saja diatasi
dengan perubahan tak terduga dalam ukuran pendaftaran dan dalam komposisi pengajaran
staf, sehingga pergeseran pola masa lalu dari kedua korban kurikuler dan mahasiswa saja pengambilan .
Bidwell dan Quiroz (1991) menunjukkan bagaimana jenis kontrol kerja (dominasi, berbeda
aturan, konsultasi, dan pasar) muncul dari upaya oleh personil sekolah untuk menangani
kontinjensi yang timbul dari perbedaan ukuran sekolah dan daya klien dan bagaimana intervensi
mode kontrol kemudian mempengaruhi orientasi guru ke dan pelaksanaan instruksi
(Bidwell, Frank, & Quiroz, 1997).
Contoh-contoh ini menggambarkan guru dan pegawai sekolah berurusan dengan sifat sekolah
populasi dan kondisi lainnya, bukan dengan menafsirkan mereka sebagai indeks iklim, tetapi sebagai
pengaturan organisasi dan cara melakukan pekerjaan yang pada gilirannya mempengaruhi sekolah
intern operasi dan mahasiswa hasil. Mereka membangkitkan rasa sekolah sebagai organizasi aktif 130 Robert Dreeben tions, mengingatkan studi organisasi yang lebih tua, dengan menggunakan bukti yang dikumpulkan khusus untuk keperluan penyelidikan (misalnya, perbandingan strategis kasus) tanpa bergantung terutama pada survei besar yang tersedia. Namun tidak semua konsepsi organisasi sekolah berkonsentrasi pada kerja internal sekolah atau mekanisme ditafsirkan dalam hal tersebut. Dengan mengacu pada aspek yang paling stabil dari sekolah dan sekolah, misalnya, perspektif kelembagaan telah menarik perhatian bagaimana sekolah terkait secara struktural dengan sistem impersonal modern ekonomi dan negara-bangsa (Meyer & Rowan, 1978; Weber, 1978 ). Mereka hubungan dapat diidentifikasi lebih mudah dari analisis perkembangan sejarah dalam masyarakat yang lebih luas dan dalam organisasi (misalnya, pola demografi, perkembangan teknologi, gerakan sosial, tindakan pemerintah, pergeseran permintaan pendidikan, migrasi; [Craig 1981;. Stinchcombe, 1965] ) dibandingkan dari indeks terkunci-in-time biasanya digunakan dalam efek struktural argumen. Abbott (1997) penilaian sosiologi umum tampaknya sesuai dengan wilayah sekolah efek: "fakta-fakta Sebagian besar masalah pekerjaan empiris kita saat decontextualized dengan hanya lemah koneksi ke proses, hubungan, dan tindakan "(hal. 1158). Daerah itu penyelidikan telah didominasi oleh, meskipun tidak terbatas pada, semacam struktural efek penalaran di mana "fakta-fakta decontextualized" indeks global dan agregat telah berdiri untuk kedua struktur dan proses, yang terakhir sering diidentifikasi lainnya dugaan daripada dengan pemeriksaan , dan di mana kausalitas telah dianggap searah. Ini adalah kesulitan substantif yang tidak dapat diatasi hanya dengan menggunakan metode alternatif untuk mempelajari organisasi sekolah. resolusi mereka membutuhkan mencurahkan perhatian pada agenda konseptual substantif organisasi sekolah dan sekolah. UCAPAN TERIMA KASIH. Saya berterima kasih kepada Rebecca Barr, Charles E. Bidwell, dan John W. Meyer untuk pembacaan berharga dan komentar atas draf awal bab ini.




























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