International Trade AgreementsThe General Agreement on Tariffs andTrad terjemahan - International Trade AgreementsThe General Agreement on Tariffs andTrad Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

International Trade AgreementsThe G

International Trade Agreements
The General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade and the World Trade Organization
At the end of World War II, the United States and 22 other nations organized the body
that came to be known as GATT. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT ) was an international organization of 153 nations dedicated to reducing or
eliminating tariffs and other barriers to world trade. These 153 nations accounted
for more than 97 percent of the world’s merchandise trade (see Figure 3.4). GATT,
headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, provided a forum for tariff negotiations and
a means for settling international trade disputes and problems. Most-favored-nation
status (MFN) was the famous principle of GATT. It meant that each GATT member
nation was to be treated equally by all contracting nations. Therefore, MFN ensured
that any tariff reductions or other trade concessions were extended automatically to all
GATT members. From 1947 to 1994, the body sponsored eight rounds of negotiations
to reduce trade restrictions. Three of the most fruitful were the Kennedy Round, the
Tokyo Round, and the Uruguay Round.
The Kennedy Round (1964–1967) In 1962, the United States Congress passed
the Trade Expansion Act. This law gave President John F. Kennedy the authority to
negotiate reciprocal trade agreements that could reduce U.S. tariffs by as much as
50 percent. Armed with this authority, which was granted for a period of five years,
President Kennedy called for a round of negotiations through GATT.
These negotiations, which began in 1964, have since become known as the
Kennedy Round. They were aimed at reducing tariffs and other barriers to trade in
WTO Members Share in World Merchandise Trade, 2010
The 153 member nations account for more than 97 percent of the
world’s merchandise trade
81

both industrial and agricultural products. The participants succeeded in reducing tariffs
on these products by an average of more than 35 percent. However, they were less
successful in removing other types of trade barriers.
The Tokyo Round (1973–1979) In 1973, representatives of approximately 100
nations gathered in Tokyo for another round of GATT negotiations. The Tokyo Round
was completed in 1979. The participants negotiated tariff cuts of 30 to 35 percent,
which were to be implemented over an eight-year period. In addition, they were able to
remove or ease such nontariff barriers as import quotas, unrealistic quality standards
for imports, and unnecessary red tape in customs procedures.
The Uruguay Round (1986–1993) In 1986, the Uruguay Round was launched to
extend trade liberalization and widen the GATT treaty to include textiles, agricultural
products, business services, and intellectual-property rights. This most ambitious and
comprehensive global commercial agreement in history concluded overall negotiations
on December 15, 1993, with delegations on hand from 109 nations. The agreement
included provisions to lower tariffs by greater than one-third, to reform trade in agricultural
goods, to write new rules of trade for intellectual property and services, and
to strengthen the dispute-settlement process. These reforms were expected to expand
the world economy by an estimated $200 billion annually.
The Uruguay Round also created the World Trade Organization (WTO) on
January 1, 1995. The WTO was established by GATT to oversee the provisions of the
Uruguay Round and resolve any resulting trade disputes. Membership in the WTO
obliges 153 member nations to observe GATT rules. The WTO has judicial powers
to mediate among members disputing the new rules. It incorporates trade in goods,
services, and ideas and exerts more binding authority than GATT. Its main function is
to ensure that trade flows as smoothly, predictably, and freely as possible.
The Doha Round (2001) On November 14, 2001, in Doha, Qatar, the WTO members
agreed to further reduce trade barriers through multilateral trade negotiations
over the next three years. This new round of negotiations focuses on industrial tariffs
and nontariff barriers, agriculture, services, and easing trade rules. U.S. exporters of
industrial and agricultural goods and services should have improved access to overseas
markets. The Doha Round has set the stage for WTO members to take an important
step toward significant new multilateral trade liberalization. It is a difficult task, but
the rewards—lower tariffs, more choices for consumers, and further integration of
developing countries into the world trading system—are sure to be worth the effort.
Some experts suggest that U.S. exporters of industrial and agricultural goods and
services should have improved access to overseas markets, whereas others disagree.
Negotiations between the developed and developing countries continued in 2012.
World Trade and the Global Economic Crisis
After the sharpest decline in more than 72 years, world trade was set to rebound in
2010 by growing at 9.5 percent, according to the WTO economists. In a 2012 speech,
WTO Director-General Pascal Lamy stated, “The multilateral trading system has been
instrumental in maintaining trade openness during the crisis, thereby avoiding even
worse outcomes. Members must remain vigilant. This is not the time for go-it-alone
measures. This is the time to strengthen and preserve the global trading system so that
it keeps performing this vital function in the future.”7
Exports from developed economies increased nearly 13 percent in 2010, compared
to a 16.5 percent increase in the rest of the world. China’s exports increased in 2010
by a massive 28 percent. Furthermore, the higher prices and extraordinary growth of
trade in developing Asia increased the combined share of developing economies and
the Commonwealth of Independent States in world exports to 45 percent in 2010, its
highest ever.
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International Trade AgreementsThe General Agreement on Tariffs andTrade and the World Trade OrganizationAt the end of World War II, the United States and 22 other nations organized the bodythat came to be known as GATT. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT ) was an international organization of 153 nations dedicated to reducing oreliminating tariffs and other barriers to world trade. These 153 nations accountedfor more than 97 percent of the world’s merchandise trade (see Figure 3.4). GATT,headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, provided a forum for tariff negotiations anda means for settling international trade disputes and problems. Most-favored-nationstatus (MFN) was the famous principle of GATT. It meant that each GATT membernation was to be treated equally by all contracting nations. Therefore, MFN ensuredthat any tariff reductions or other trade concessions were extended automatically to allGATT members. From 1947 to 1994, the body sponsored eight rounds of negotiationsto reduce trade restrictions. Three of the most fruitful were the Kennedy Round, theTokyo Round, and the Uruguay Round.The Kennedy Round (1964–1967) In 1962, the United States Congress passedthe Trade Expansion Act. This law gave President John F. Kennedy the authority tonegotiate reciprocal trade agreements that could reduce U.S. tariffs by as much as50 percent. Armed with this authority, which was granted for a period of five years,President Kennedy called for a round of negotiations through GATT.
These negotiations, which began in 1964, have since become known as the
Kennedy Round. They were aimed at reducing tariffs and other barriers to trade in
WTO Members Share in World Merchandise Trade, 2010
The 153 member nations account for more than 97 percent of the
world’s merchandise trade
81

both industrial and agricultural products. The participants succeeded in reducing tariffs
on these products by an average of more than 35 percent. However, they were less
successful in removing other types of trade barriers.
The Tokyo Round (1973–1979) In 1973, representatives of approximately 100
nations gathered in Tokyo for another round of GATT negotiations. The Tokyo Round
was completed in 1979. The participants negotiated tariff cuts of 30 to 35 percent,
which were to be implemented over an eight-year period. In addition, they were able to
remove or ease such nontariff barriers as import quotas, unrealistic quality standards
for imports, and unnecessary red tape in customs procedures.
The Uruguay Round (1986–1993) In 1986, the Uruguay Round was launched to
extend trade liberalization and widen the GATT treaty to include textiles, agricultural
products, business services, and intellectual-property rights. This most ambitious and
comprehensive global commercial agreement in history concluded overall negotiations
on December 15, 1993, with delegations on hand from 109 nations. The agreement
included provisions to lower tariffs by greater than one-third, to reform trade in agricultural
goods, to write new rules of trade for intellectual property and services, and
to strengthen the dispute-settlement process. These reforms were expected to expand
the world economy by an estimated $200 billion annually.
The Uruguay Round also created the World Trade Organization (WTO) on
January 1, 1995. The WTO was established by GATT to oversee the provisions of the
Uruguay Round and resolve any resulting trade disputes. Membership in the WTO
obliges 153 member nations to observe GATT rules. The WTO has judicial powers
to mediate among members disputing the new rules. It incorporates trade in goods,
services, and ideas and exerts more binding authority than GATT. Its main function is
to ensure that trade flows as smoothly, predictably, and freely as possible.
The Doha Round (2001) On November 14, 2001, in Doha, Qatar, the WTO members
agreed to further reduce trade barriers through multilateral trade negotiations
over the next three years. This new round of negotiations focuses on industrial tariffs
and nontariff barriers, agriculture, services, and easing trade rules. U.S. exporters of
industrial and agricultural goods and services should have improved access to overseas
markets. The Doha Round has set the stage for WTO members to take an important
step toward significant new multilateral trade liberalization. It is a difficult task, but
the rewards—lower tariffs, more choices for consumers, and further integration of
developing countries into the world trading system—are sure to be worth the effort.
Some experts suggest that U.S. exporters of industrial and agricultural goods and
services should have improved access to overseas markets, whereas others disagree.
Negotiations between the developed and developing countries continued in 2012.
World Trade and the Global Economic Crisis
After the sharpest decline in more than 72 years, world trade was set to rebound in
2010 by growing at 9.5 percent, according to the WTO economists. In a 2012 speech,
WTO Director-General Pascal Lamy stated, “The multilateral trading system has been
instrumental in maintaining trade openness during the crisis, thereby avoiding even
worse outcomes. Members must remain vigilant. This is not the time for go-it-alone
measures. This is the time to strengthen and preserve the global trading system so that
it keeps performing this vital function in the future.”7
Exports from developed economies increased nearly 13 percent in 2010, compared
to a 16.5 percent increase in the rest of the world. China’s exports increased in 2010
by a massive 28 percent. Furthermore, the higher prices and extraordinary growth of
trade in developing Asia increased the combined share of developing economies and
the Commonwealth of Independent States in world exports to 45 percent in 2010, its
highest ever.
82
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Perjanjian Perdagangan Internasional
The Perjanjian Umum tentang Tarif dan
Perdagangan dan Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia
Pada akhir Perang Dunia II, Amerika Serikat dan 22 negara lainnya yang diselenggarakan tubuh
yang kemudian dikenal sebagai GATT. Persetujuan Umum tentang Tarif dan Perdagangan
(GATT) adalah sebuah organisasi internasional dari 153 negara yang didedikasikan untuk mengurangi atau
menghilangkan tarif dan hambatan lain untuk perdagangan dunia. Ini 153 negara menyumbang
lebih dari 97 persen dari perdagangan barang dunia (lihat Gambar 3.4). GATT,
yang berkantor pusat di Jenewa, Swiss, menyediakan forum untuk negosiasi tarif dan
sarana untuk menyelesaikan sengketa perdagangan internasional dan masalah. Kebanyakan-disukai-bangsa
Status (MFN) adalah prinsip terkenal dari GATT. Ini berarti bahwa setiap anggota GATT
bangsa itu harus diperlakukan sama oleh semua bangsa tertular. Oleh karena itu, MFN memastikan
bahwa penurunan tarif atau konsesi perdagangan lainnya diperpanjang secara otomatis ke semua
anggota GATT. Dari 1947-1994, tubuh disponsori delapan putaran perundingan
untuk mengurangi pembatasan perdagangan. Tiga dari yang paling bermanfaat adalah Kennedy Putaran, yang
Putaran Tokyo, dan Putaran Uruguay.
The Kennedy Putaran (1964-1967) Pada tahun 1962, Kongres Amerika Serikat melewati
Ekspansi UU Perdagangan. Undang-undang ini memberi Presiden John F. Kennedy kewenangan untuk
menegosiasikan perjanjian perdagangan timbal balik yang bisa mengurangi US tarif sebanyak
50 persen. Berbekal kewenangan ini, yang diberikan untuk jangka waktu lima tahun,
Presiden Kennedy menyerukan putaran negosiasi melalui GATT.
Negosiasi ini, yang dimulai pada tahun 1964, sejak menjadi dikenal sebagai
Putaran Kennedy. Mereka bertujuan untuk mengurangi tarif dan hambatan lain untuk perdagangan di
WTO Anggota Share di Dunia Merchandise Trade, 2010
153 negara anggota mencapai lebih dari 97 persen dari
perdagangan barang dunia
81 kedua produk industri dan pertanian. Para peserta berhasil mengurangi tarif pada produk ini dengan rata-rata lebih dari 35 persen. Namun, mereka kurang berhasil dalam menghilangkan jenis hambatan perdagangan. Tokyo Putaran (1973-1979) Pada tahun 1973, perwakilan dari sekitar 100 negara berkumpul di Tokyo untuk satu putaran negosiasi GATT. Tokyo Putaran selesai pada tahun 1979. Para peserta negosiasi pemotongan tarif dari 30 sampai 35 persen, yang akan dilaksanakan selama periode delapan tahun. Selain itu, mereka mampu menghapus atau meringankan hambatan nontarif seperti impor kuota, standar kualitas tidak realistis untuk impor, dan pita merah yang tidak perlu di prosedur kepabeanan. Putaran Uruguay (1986-1993) Pada tahun 1986, Putaran Uruguay diluncurkan untuk memperluas perdagangan liberalisasi dan memperluas perjanjian GATT untuk memasukkan tekstil, pertanian produk, layanan bisnis, dan hak kekayaan intelektual. Ini yang paling ambisius dan kesepakatan komersial yang komprehensif global dalam sejarah menyimpulkan negosiasi secara keseluruhan pada tanggal 15 Desember 1993, dengan delegasi di tangan dari 109 negara. Perjanjian tersebut meliputi ketentuan untuk tarif yang lebih rendah oleh lebih dari sepertiga, untuk mereformasi perdagangan pertanian barang, menulis aturan baru perdagangan untuk properti dan jasa intelektual, dan untuk memperkuat proses penyelesaian perselisihan. Reformasi ini diharapkan untuk memperluas ekonomi dunia oleh sekitar $ 200.000.000.000 per tahun. Putaran Uruguay juga menciptakan Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia (WTO) pada tanggal 1 Januari 1995. WTO didirikan oleh GATT untuk mengawasi ketentuan Putaran Uruguay dan menyelesaikan perselisihan perdagangan dihasilkan apapun. Keanggotaan dalam WTO mewajibkan 153 negara anggota untuk mengamati aturan GATT. WTO memiliki kekuatan yudisial untuk menengahi antara anggota bersengketa aturan baru. Menggabungkan perdagangan barang, jasa, dan ide-ide dan diberikannya kewenangan yang lebih mengikat dari GATT. Fungsi utamanya adalah untuk memastikan bahwa arus perdagangan lancar, bisa ditebak, dan sebebas mungkin. Putaran Doha (2001) Pada tanggal 14 November 2001, di Doha, Qatar, para anggota WTO sepakat untuk mengurangi hambatan perdagangan melalui perundingan perdagangan multilateral lebih tiga tahun ke depan. Ini babak baru perundingan berfokus pada tarif industri dan hambatan nontarif, pertanian, jasa, dan aturan-aturan perdagangan pelonggaran. Eksportir AS barang dan jasa industri dan pertanian harus telah meningkatkan akses ke luar negeri pasar. Putaran Doha telah menetapkan panggung untuk anggota WTO untuk mengambil penting langkah menuju liberalisasi perdagangan multilateral baru yang signifikan. Ini adalah tugas yang sulit, tapi penghargaan-rendah tarif, lebih banyak pilihan bagi konsumen, dan integrasi lebih lanjut dari negara-negara berkembang ke dalam perdagangan dunia sistem-pasti akan sepadan dengan usaha. Beberapa ahli menyarankan bahwa US eksportir barang industri dan pertanian dan jasa harus memiliki peningkatan akses ke pasar luar negeri, sedangkan yang lain tidak setuju. Negosiasi antara negara maju dan berkembang terus pada tahun 2012. World Trade dan Krisis Ekonomi Global Setelah penurunan tajam dalam lebih dari 72 tahun, perdagangan dunia didirikan untuk rebound di 2010 tumbuh sebesar 9,5 persen, menurut ekonom WTO. Dalam pidato 2012, Direktur Jenderal WTO Pascal Lamy menyatakan, "Sistem perdagangan multilateral telah berperan dalam menjaga keterbukaan perdagangan selama krisis, sehingga menghindari bahkan hasil yang lebih buruk. Anggota harus tetap waspada. Ini bukan waktu untuk pergi-it-sendiri langkah-langkah. Ini adalah waktu untuk memperkuat dan mempertahankan sistem perdagangan global sehingga itu membuat menjalankan fungsi penting ini di masa depan. "7 Ekspor dari negara maju meningkat hampir 13 persen pada 2010, dibandingkan dengan peningkatan 16,5 persen di seluruh dunia. Ekspor China meningkat pada 2010 oleh 28 persen besar. Selain itu, harga yang lebih tinggi dan pertumbuhan yang luar biasa dari perdagangan di negara berkembang di Asia meningkatkan pangsa gabungan negara-negara berkembang dan Commonwealth of Independent States ekspor dunia ke 45 persen pada tahun 2010, yang tertinggi yang pernah. 82





















































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