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Ucapan-ucapan multiword awalBukti pertama gramatikal pengetahuan dalam produksi datang ketika anak menggabungkan unit bahasa dalam ucapan tunggal. Untuk anak-anak memperoleh bahasa Inggris, unit biasanya adalah kata-kata, dan, dengan demikian, awal terstruktur pidato ditandai dengan munculnya ucapan-ucapan multiword. Namun, banyak anak-anak menghasilkan bentuk transisi yang dapat mengaburkan perbedaan antara tahap satu-kata dan dua kata bahasa produksi.Transisi dari satu-kata pidatoKonstruksi vertikal. Sebelum mereka menghasilkan dua-kata ucapan-ucapan, beberapa anak mengucapkan kata tunggal berturut-turut ucapan-ucapan yang tampaknya berhubungan dengan satu sama lain dalam arti dengan cara yang sama bahwa kata-kata dalam dua-kata ucapan. Sebagai contoh: seorang gadis kecil yang bangun dengan infeksi mata menunjuk ke mata dan berkata, "ow. Eye". Dalam kasus ini, setiap kata yang memiliki kontur intonasi sama seolah-olah itu telah dikatakan oleh dirinya sendiri, dan dua kata dipisahkan oleh jeda. Namun, makna dinyatakan dengan jelas terlibat hubungan antara dua kata. Pada tahap ini, anak-anak juga kadang-kadang menghasilkan. Ucapan kata tunggal yang membangun pada orang lain sebelumnya ucapan. Scollon (1979) disebut urutan ini "vertikal konstruksi," karena ketika peneliti menuliskan apa yang anak katakan, mereka menulis ucapan setiap pada baris baru. Dua-kata sebuah kalimat, sebaliknya, akan menjadi konstruksi horisontal dan akan ditulis pada baris yang sama dalam transkripsi.Kombinasi kata unanalyzed dan kombinasi "kata + Daftar istilah". Ada bentuk lain transisi selain konstruksi vertikal ini. Kebanyakan anak memiliki setidaknya beberapa frase multiword di mereka repertoire yang telah menghafal secara unanalyzed; ungkapan-ungkapan ini karena itu tidak mencerminkan perkembangan kemampuan untuk menggabungkan kata-kata. Saya ingin dan saya tidak tahu, adalah contoh dari unanalyzed keutuhan umum dalam bahasa awal anak-anak. Beberapa anak-biasanya orang-orang yang telah memproduksi string panjang jargon sejak mereka mengoceh hari-menghasilkan lebih dari satu kata ucapan-ucapan dengan memasukkan satu kata jelas menjadi apa yang sebaliknya tidak bisa dimengerti celoteh urutan. Hasilnya bisa terdengar sesuatu seperti "bergumam bergumam bergumam cookie?" untuk lebih memperumit keadaan, Semua fenomena transisi ini mungkin ada secara bersamaan, sehingga satu anak pertama ucapan-ucapan multiword mungkin termasuk beberapa tingkat belajar rote, beberapa kombinasi "Daftar istilah + kata", dan beberapa kombinasi kata benar-benar produktif.Kombinasi dua-kataAwal sistem produktif. Di beberapa titik, kombinasi kata produktif dimulai. Kami mengatakan bahwa anak memiliki sistem produktif ketika mereka menggunakan kata-kata dalam memperkaya kosakata dalam kombinasi yang berbeda. Sampel dua-kata ucapan-ucapan yang dihasilkan oleh satu anak selama 1 bulan disajikan dalam kotak 6.1. berbagai ucapan-ucapan dalam kotak ini menunjukkan bahwa anak yang dihasilkan ucapan-ucapan ini mampu menggabungkan kata-kata dalam kosakata nya terbatas produktif. Sebagai contoh, ia bisa mengatakan bahwa segala sesuatu besar atau kecil; ia bisa mengatakan bahwa ayah dan Andrew berjalan dan tidur. (dan Anda akan memprediksi dari munculnya ucapan "Daddy duduk" pada daftar ini yang juga dapat menghasilkan anak "Duduk Andrew"). Hal ini juga yang baik bertaruh- dan penting untuk klaim bahwa anak memiliki sistem produktif-bahwa ucapan-ucapan ini bukanlah hanya berkurang tiruan dari kalimat-kalimat yang ia telah mendengar orang dewasa yang menghasilkan. Tes akan memperkenalkan anak kecil ini kepada seseorang yang baru, Emily. Jika pengetahuan linguistik produktif, ia harus segera dapat menghasilkan "Duduk Emily". "Emily berjalan", dan sebagainya.Meanings in two-word utterances. Although we say that children’s systems are productive when children can put words together in novel combinations, children’s first word combinations are limited in the range of relational meanings expressed. (the term relational meaning refers to the relation between the referents of the words in a word combination. So, for example, in the utterance, “my teddy”, the word my refers to the speaker and the word teddy refers to a stuffed animal. The relational meaning is that of possession).Roger brown proposed a list of eight relational meanings that he claimed accounted for the majority of the meanings children express in their two-word utterance, even children acquiring different languages. These meanings, with examples drawn from many different children, are listed in Box 6.2. according to brown, the child’s grammar at the two-word stage is a vehicle for expressing a small set of semantic relationships. The particular semantic relationships expressed at this stage reflect the level of cognitive development typical of children of this age. The particular words, of course, reflect the language the children have been exposed to. So, according to this view, cognitive development provides the categories of early combinatorial speech, and input in the target language provides the lexical items that fill those categories.Three-word and more combinationsFor some children, the two-word stage lasts for several months. For other children, the two-word stage is brief and barely identifiable as a separate stage before utterances with three and more word are produced. Of course, children continue to produce one- and two-word utterances. What changes with development is the upper limit on the length of utterance children can produce. Box 6.3 is a sample of all the three-word utterances produced by one 2-year-old child in the course of having breakfast. This child had just started to put three words together; most utterances were one or two words long and only one was longer than three words. These sentences illustrate several typical characteristics of children’s speech at this stage.When children start to put three words together, many of the meanings expressed are combinations of the relational meaning in two-word combinations, with the redundant terms mentioned only once. For example: the sentence “I watch it” could be described as a combinations of “agent + action” (I watch) and “action + object” (watch it). Also, children’s utterances at this stage are almost exclusively about the here and now. Even 3-year-old rarely mention absent or imaginary event. However, it is important to point out that these generalizations do not hold perfectly. Not all meanings expressed fit the description of combinations of the two-word relational meanings, and not all utterances refer to the here and now. For example, one of the sentence in box 6.3 refers to an absent person, daddy. (for a more elaborate description of the meaning in early multiword speech, )In terms of structure, two characteristic of these early multiword sentence are noteworthy. First, early sentence tend to be imperatives and affirmative, declarative statements, as opposed to negations, or questions. Second, certain types of words and bound morphemes consistently tend to be missing. Because the omission of certain words and morphemes makes children’s utterances sound like the sentences adults used to produce when writing telegrams in which the sender paid by the word, children’s speech. (telegrams have been replaced by overnight mail and e-mail, but the term has remained). The telegraphic quality of children’s early speech has been the focus of considerable research attention.The telegraphic nature of early combinatorial speechThe words included in the early sentences of children acquiring English are primarily words from the major grammatical categories of nouns, verbs and adjectives. The missing elements are determiners, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, and the bound morphemes that go on the ends of nouns and verbs. These missing forms are called grammatical morphemes because the use these words and word endings is tied to particular grammatical entities. For example, the and a can appear only at the beginning of a noun phrase; ing is typically attached to a verb. Although these grammatical elements do carry some meaning, they seem to carry less meaning than do the nouns and verbs in the utterance. Rather, their primary function is structural; they are “the linguistic hooks and eyes that hold sentences together”.Exactly why these grammatical functors (i.e., function words) and inflections are omitted is a matter of some debate. One possibility is that the omitted words and morphemes are not produced because they are not essential to meaning. Children probably have cognitive limitations on the length of utterance they can produce, in dependent of their grammatical knowledge. Given such length limitations, they may sensibly leave out the least important parts. It is also true that the omitted words tend to be words that are not stressed in adult’s utterances, and children may be leaving out unstressed elements. Some have also suggested that children’s underlying knowledge at this point does not include the grammatical categories that goven the use of the omitted forms, although other evidence suggests it does. For example, 18-month-olds, but not 15-month-olds, listen longer to passages that use grammatical functors correctly than to passages that are identical except that the grammatical functors are incorrect. We will return later in this chapter to the question of what grammatical knowledge underlines children’s early sentences.
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