‘simplistic dualities’ have always

‘simplistic dualities’ have always been at the centre of campaigning (1992,
p. 44). There is, in the US as well as other countries, growing acceptance that
there is nothing intrinsically wrong with negative campaigning, if the claims
made are fair and reasonable. Lies and deception are not acceptable, of
course, but they are hardly unique to our political culture. Modern media give
attack ads more reach and visibility, but did not invent them or the principles
of political competition underpinning them. Attack is as much part of the
political process as defence, and if modern advertisers do it with everincreasing slickness and sophistication, it seems pointless, indeed futile, to
spend too much intellectual energy on condemning them. As Diamond and
Bates put it, in the history of political advertising, as in so many other forms
of political communication, ‘the political golden age of the past, upon close
inspection, turns out to be made of brass’ (1992, p. 384).
In Britain, with its distinctive traditions and conventions, the issues are
rather different. The controversy which Conservative government advertising for its 1980s privatisation campaigns provoked, fuelled by legislation
(quoted on p. 109) prohibiting local governments from using public revenues
for political advertising purposes, has long called into question the logic of
a system which prevents political advertising on television and radio, while
allowing the government to spend hundreds of millions of pounds promoting
ideologically based policies. New Labour has also been charged with using
public money to promote policy, as in the funds earmarked for education
about the euro. Advocates of reform have argued, reasonably enough, that
since such campaigns are clearly ‘political’ and paid for by the tax-payer,
other organisations with political objectives, such as environmental groups,
trade unions and even political parties, should be permitted to purchase
broadcast advertising time at commercial rates, as is the case in the US.
There, pressure groups and political organisations of all kinds can buy up
television time to protest, nationally or locally, about the environment, or
factory closures, or any of the issues around which political campaigns
regularly develop. Why not in Britain, therefore?
The future of political advertising has taken on greater urgency as the
British broadcasting system becomes more commercialised and the financial
pressures on broadcasters increase. Can the political parties take it for granted
that they will always have access to free airtime in the form of PPBs and PEBs?
When ratings are everything in a broadcasting system increasingly run as a
profit-making industry, will media managers be content to provide prime-time
slots free of charge to pontificating politicians? Quite possibly not, argued a
confidential internal Labour Party document in the late 1980s, warning that
‘parties may be forced to find ways of entering this hostile broadcasting
environment directly, either through paid political advertising . . . or by the
production of programmes or by sponsorship of programmes. Naturally such
developments would be costly and the richest party – or the party with the
richest friends – would be best able to take any advantages there might be’.
ADVERTISING
115
And here, precisely, is the great danger, as opponents of paid political
advertising on British broadcasting perceive it. As was noted in Chapter 3,
the growing importance in political campaigning of paid-for media
inevitably favours those who canpay, and discriminates against those who
cannot. In an unequal society, in which political and economic resources are
already closely linked, the concentration of power and the disenfranchisement of the economically deprived would be even greater than it currently
is. In Britain, to put it simply, the political party with the richest friends and
supporters would have much greater access to paid-for broadcast advertising
than their opponents.
To some extent the debate about political advertising parallels that on the
future of broadcast news and current affairs (McNair, 2009c). In a media
environment where wavelength scarcity is no longer a determining factor and
in which there is a multitude of channels beaming to increasingly fragmented, ‘targeted’ groups, why not allow some overt political advertising, as
is permitted in the US and other countries? We have it in our print media, so
why not on television and radio?
Opposition to this viewpoint is based not only on financial grounds, but
also on resistance to the ‘trivialisation’ of the political process and the
degradation of the public sphere discussed in Chapter 3. This returns us
once again to a debate that continues to defy neat resolution. As this book
went to press, there were no government plans to permit paid political
advertising on British television or radio, and it seems unlikely that such a
form of political communication will ever be permitted on the main
‘terrestrial’ channels. A consultation paper released by the main British
broadcasters (BBC, ITV, Channels 4 and 5, Independent Radio) after the
1997 election, with a view to reforming the system of party political
broadcasting in the UK, stressed that ‘there is little enthusiasm amongst
either broadcasters or the political parties to move to a system of paid
political advertising’.
12
But some change is inevitable, probably in the
direction of concentrating the transmission of party political broadcasts
around election campaigns and reducing the number of broadcasts which
take place outside campaign periods. For example, the broadcasters would
like to discontinue the tradition of transmitting a ten-minute ‘talking head’
piece to camera by the Chancellor, after the annual Budget Speech in
parliament (which is by convention ‘answered’ by the main opposition
spokespersons). This is argued to be a reasonable reform in the context of
expanding live coverage of parliament and the extended media coverage of
it which now takes place. On the other hand, should not the public be
permitted to hear the Chancellor explain, in his or her own words, without
the mediation of journalists, what the budget that year is about?
Here and in other features of the British PPB system, new technologies
which allow more and better coverage of parliament (and the political
COMMUNICATING POLITICS
116
process in general), and the force of commercial pressures on access to
broadcast airtime, make some degree of change inevitable in the years to
come.
ADVERTISING
117
Further reading
Diamond and Bates’ The Spotremains the best source of further
reading on American political advertising. Margaret Scammell’s
Designer Politics: How Elections are Won(1995) includes political
advertising in its examination of British political communication
before the era of New Labour. Martin Rosenbaum’s From Soapbox to
Soundbites examines party-political campaigning in the UK since
1945. Andrew Wernick’s Promotional Culture(1991) presents critical
perspectives on the allegedly damaging effects which the steadily more
sophisticated use of commercial advertising techniques by politicians
has had on the quality of modern democracy. For a recent study of
politicians’ use of public-access broadcasting see McNair et al.(2003).
Peter Mandelson’s autobiographical account of his work for the
Labour Party between 1986 and 2010 (The Third Man, 2010) includes
fascinating material on the background to iconic examples of British
political advertising such as the Hugh Hudson-directed ‘Kinnock’. The
Sage Handbook of Political Advertising(Kaid and Holtz-Bacha, 2006)
provides a comprehensive overview of the role of political advertising
in democracies around the world. Sally Young’s edited collection on
Government Communication in Australia(2007) discusses advertising
and other forms of political communication in that country.

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

‘simplistic dualities’ have always been at the centre of campaigning (1992,p. 44). There is, in the US as well as other countries, growing acceptance thatthere is nothing intrinsically wrong with negative campaigning, if the claimsmade are fair and reasonable. Lies and deception are not acceptable, ofcourse, but they are hardly unique to our political culture. Modern media giveattack ads more reach and visibility, but did not invent them or the principlesof political competition underpinning them. Attack is as much part of thepolitical process as defence, and if modern advertisers do it with everincreasing slickness and sophistication, it seems pointless, indeed futile, tospend too much intellectual energy on condemning them. As Diamond andBates put it, in the history of political advertising, as in so many other formsof political communication, ‘the political golden age of the past, upon closeinspection, turns out to be made of brass’ (1992, p. 384).In Britain, with its distinctive traditions and conventions, the issues arerather different. The controversy which Conservative government advertising for its 1980s privatisation campaigns provoked, fuelled by legislation(quoted on p. 109) prohibiting local governments from using public revenuesfor political advertising purposes, has long called into question the logic ofa system which prevents political advertising on television and radio, whilememungkinkan pemerintah untuk menghabiskan ratusan jutaan Poundsterling mempromosikanideologis berbasis kebijakan. Tenaga kerja baru juga didakwa dengan menggunakanuang publik untuk mempromosikan kebijakan, seperti dana yang dialokasikan untuk pendidikantentang euro. Pendukung reformasi berpendapat, cukup cukup, yangsejak kampanye tersebut jelas 'politik' dan dibayar oleh pembayar pajak,organisasi-organisasi lain dengan tujuan politik, seperti kelompok lingkungan hidup,buruh dan Partai bahkan politik, harus diizinkan untuk membeliBroadcast waktu iklan tarif komersial, seperti halnya di Amerika Serikat.Di sana, tekanan kelompok dan organisasi politik dari semua jenis dapat membelitelevisi waktu untuk protes, nasional maupun lokal, tentang lingkungan, ataupenutupan pabrik, atau salah satu masalah di sekitar kampanye politik yangmengembangkan secara teratur. Mengapa tidak di Britania, oleh karena itu?Masa depan politik iklan telah diambil pada urgensi yang lebih besar sebagaiSistem Penyiaran Inggris menjadi lebih dikomersialisasikan dan keuanganmeningkatkan tekanan pada penyiar. Dapat partai politik mengambil untuk diberikanbahwa mereka akan selalu memiliki akses ke gratis airtime dalam bentuk PPBs dan PEBs?Kapan peringkat adalah segalanya dalam sistem penyiaran semakin dijalankan sebagaiindustri membuat keuntungan, manajer media akan menjadi konten untuk menyediakan waktu Perdanaslot gratis untuk politisi pontificating? Sangat mungkin tidak berpendapatdokumen Partai Buruh internal rahasia di akhir tahun 1980an, peringatan yang' pihak mungkin terpaksa harus menemukan cara untuk memasuki Penyiaran bermusuhan inilingkungan langsung, melalui dibayar iklan politik... atau lewatproduksi program atau oleh sponsor program. Alami sepertiperkembangan akan mahal dan Partai terkaya – atau Partai denganteman-teman terkaya-akan paling mampu mengambil keuntungan mungkin ada '.IKLAN115Dan di sini, tepatnya, adalah bahaya besar, sebagai lawan dari dibayar politikiklan di Inggris Penyiaran mengartikannya. Seperti yang tercatat dalam bab 3,semakin penting dalam kampanye politik dibayar untuk mediapasti nikmat mereka yang canpay, dan membedakan terhadap orang-orang yangtidak bisa. Dalam masyarakat yang tidak seimbang, di mana sumber daya ekonomi dan politik yangsudah erat, konsentrasi kekuasaan dan pencabutan hak dari ekonomi kekurangan akan lebih besar daripada saat iniadalah. Di Britania, Sederhananya, partai politik dengan teman-teman terkaya danpendukung akan memiliki banyak akses yang lebih besar untuk dibayar untuk siaran iklandaripada lawan-lawan mereka.Sampai batas tertentu perdebatan tentang politik iklan paralel yang padadepan menyiarkan berita dan urusan saat ini (McNair, 2009c). Dalam medialingkungan di mana gelombang kelangkaan tidak lagi faktor yang menentukan dandi mana ada banyak saluran berseri-seri untuk semakin terfragmentasi, 'ditargetkan' kelompok, mengapa tidak memungkinkan beberapa iklan politik yang terang-terangan, sebagaidiperbolehkan di AS dan negara-negara lain? Kita memilikinya di media cetak kami, jadiMengapa tidak di televisi dan radio?Oposisi terhadap pandangan ini tidak hanya didasarkan pada Taman keuangan, tetapijuga pada perlawanan terhadap 'penting' proses politik yangdegradasi dari ruang publik yang dibahas dalam bab 3. Ini mengembalikan kitasekali lagi untuk perdebatan yang terus menentang resolusi rapi. Sebagai buku inipergi ke pers, ada tidak ada rencana pemerintah untuk mengizinkan dibayar politikiklan di televisi Inggris atau radio, dan itu tampaknya tidak mungkin bahwabentuk komunikasi politik akan pernah diijinkan di utamasaluran 'terestrial'. Kertas konsultasi yang dirilis oleh utama Inggrispenyiar (BBC, ITV, saluran 4 dan 5, Radio independen) setelahpemilu 1997, dengan maksud untuk mereformasi sistem partai politikPenyiaran di Inggris, menekankan bahwa ' ada sedikit antusiasme antarapenyiar atau partai politik untuk pindah ke sistem dibayarpolitik iklan '.12Tetapi beberapa perubahan tidak dapat dihindari, mungkin diArah berkonsentrasi transmisi siaran politik Partaidi sekitar kampanye pemilihan dan mengurangi jumlah siaran yangmengambil tempat di luar periode kampanye. Misalnya, penyiar akaningin menghentikan aliran transmisi sepuluh menit 'kepala berbicara'sepotong ke kamera oleh Kanselir, setelah pidato anggaran tahunan diParlemen (yang merupakan oleh Konvensi 'jawab' oleh oposisi utamajuru bicara). Ini adalah berpendapat akan reformasi masuk akal dalam konteksmemperluas liputan langsung Parlemen dan liputan media diperpanjangitu yang terjadi sekarang. Di sisi lain, harus tidak umumdiizinkan untuk mendengar Kanselir menjelaskan, dalam kata-kata sendiri, tanpamediasi wartawan, apa anggaran tahun itu adalah tentang?Di sini dan dalam fitur lain dari sistem Inggris PPB, teknologi baruyang memungkinkan lebih banyak dan lebih baik cakupan Parlemen (dan politikKOMUNIKASI POLITIK116proses secara umum), dan kekuatan tekanan komersial di akses kesiaran airtime, membuat beberapa tingkat perubahan yang tak terelakkan di tahun-tahundatang. IKLAN117Bacaan lebih lanjutDiamond dan Bates' The Spotremains sumber terbaik lebih lanjutmembaca iklan politik Amerika. Margaret ScammellDesain politik: Bagaimana pemilu Won(1995) termasuk politikiklan di dengan pemeriksaan British politik komunikasisebelum era baru kerja. Martin Rosenbaum dari kotak sabun untukSoundbites meneliti kampanye partai politik di Inggris sejak1945. hadiah promosi Culture(1991) Andrew Wernick kritisperspektif diduga merusak efek yang semakincanggih penggunaan teknik iklan komersial oleh politisimemiliki kualitas demokrasi modern. Untuk studi barupolitisi penggunaan Penyiaran akses publik melihat McNair et al.(2003).Peter Mandelson otobiografi rekening karyanya untukTermasuk Partai Buruh antara 1986 dan 2010 (The Third Man, 2010)menarik materi pada latar belakang ikon contoh Britishiklan politik seperti Hugh Hudson menyutradarai 'Kinnock'. TheSage Handbook politik iklan (Kaid dan Holtz-Bacha, 2006)memberikan gambaran yang komprehensif tentang peran politik iklandalam demokrasi di seluruh dunia. Sally muda yang disunting koleksi diKomunikasi Pemerintah Australia(2007) membahas iklandan bentuk lain dari komunikasi politik di negara itu.