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Taphonomy dan UniformitarianismJadi crania tidak lengkap, dasar dari Agenbroad's analogi, mudah dijelaskan oleh proses alami, bukan manusiaperilaku. Ini adalah lebih daripada analogi mudah — itu adalah teori middlelevel, karena kami mengerti mengapa bison tulangdisarticulate, menjadi dikuburkan, dan cuaca cara melakukan thatthey. Tapi pemahaman ini didasarkan pada pengamatan hewan yang modern. Bisakah kita mempercayai pengamatan ini untuk menjelaskan arkeologi tetap? Prinsip uniformitarianism berlaku di sini, karena hewan kuno, seperti bison yang meninggal di Hudson - Meng, anatomi sama sebagai hewan yang diamati dalam studi taphonomic. Bison disarticulation diatur oleh jumlah tulang rawan dan tulang bersama-sama memegang tendon dan jumlah jaringan otot di sekitar mereka. Lebih tulang rawan, tendon, dan otot dalam sendi, yang lebih tahan bersama adalah disarticulation. Jika kerangka disarticulation adalah sebagian besar produk anatomi, dan jika bison anatomi tidak berubah selama 10.000 tahun (dan belum), kemudian pengamatan modern relevan oleh penafsiran arkeologi data. Demikian juga, efek sinar matahari pada tulang adalah produk sifat tulang dan sifat sinar matahari. Dan mengingat bahwa sinar matahari maupun tulang komposisi telah berubah dari waktu ke waktu, kita telah melampaui analogi untuk menjelaskan mengapa faktor alam tertentu memiliki efek diprediksi tertentu pada tulang. Ini adalah teori tingkat menengah. Dan implikasi bahwa manusia bermain sedikitperanan, jika ada, dalam kematian bison 500 di Hudson-Meng. Tetapi jika manusia tidak melakukan pengirimanbison — apa yang terjadi? Todd dan Rapson berhipotesis bahwa badai musim panas yang memicu kebakaran besar prairie yang mendorong bison kawanan ke swale untuk perlindungan (banyak Bison berbaring dengan kepala mereka ke Tenggara, yang, menggunakan analogi dengan perilaku modern bison, menunjukkan bahwa mereka telah menanggapi angin barat laut). Tak satu pun dari tulang yang dibakar, sehingga binatang ini tidak dibakar sampai mati. Tapi api bisa melompat swale dan asphyxiated bison dengan menghisap semua oksigen selama beberapa menit yang kritis. Hipotesis ini masih diuji. Dan bagaimana dengan 21 poin proyektil ditemukan di sana? Seperti yang Anda lihat dalam bab-bab sebelumnya, situs arkeologi sering kembali. Dalam penggalian mereka berhati-hati, Todd dan Rapson menemukan beberapa tanah tipis yang mengandung beberapa peninggalan arkeologi di atas bison. Pada kenyataannya, Agenbroad ditemukan kurang dari sepuluh poin antara tulang. Tombak poin, kemudian, mungkin dibuang atau kehilangan lama setelah bison telah meninggal, didekomposisi, dan menjadi dikuburkan, dan beberapa poin pindah ke bawah melalui rodent menggali dan sedimen proses ke bonebed.Arkeologi eksperimental Taphonomy menggunakan pengamatan proses modern untuk membantu membuat kesimpulan dari data arkeologi. Tapi bagaimana jika ini mustahil? Bagaimana jika kita ingin tahu dampak bahan perilaku yang tidak ada lagi? Hal ini terutama berkaitan dengan perilaku manusia, karena orang-orang melakukan hal-hal di masa lalu bahwa mereka tidak lagi hari ini. Memahami sisa bahan perilaku ini memerlukan eksperimental arkeologi.Bagaimana alat batu dibuat?Many prehistoric techniques died with their practitioners, and experimental archaeologists have been forced to rediscover them. Making stone tools is one such technique, and many archaeologists have experimented by manufacturing their own. To make a stone tool, you must first locate and collect the appropriate raw materials—rocks that break with a glassy fracture such as obsidian, quartzite, or chert. This may require excavating into bedrock, because frost fracturing and sunlight can ruin surface specimens. Some ancient peoples excavated major quarries into bedrock using only fire, wooden wedges, and stone mallets. If the stone is chert or quartzite, you might improve it by heat treatment—burying large flakes or small cores in about 5 centimeters of sand, and then burning a fire on top for a day or so. Ancient flintknappers learned that they could more easily chip and shape stone treated in this way. The problem is that, over the millennia, plenty has been forgotten about the detailed technology required to make good stone tools from a pile of rocks. Fortunately, a school of experimentalists—many of them dedicated amateur archaeologists—has rediscovered some of this technology. One of the best known, Don Crabtree (1912–1980) spent a lifetime experimenting with stone tool manufacturing methods. One of his projects was to rediscover the techniques used to fabricate Folsom spear points. Remember from Chapter 4 that Folsom points, such as those found at the Folsom site in New Mexico, date to 12,300 to 12,900 calendar years ago. These exquisite points turn up in many sites on the Great Plains and in the Rocky Mountains where, mounted on spears or darts, they brought down game, including bison. Although the points are often only about 6 to 8 centimeters (2 to 3 inches) long, Crabtree counted more than 150 minute sharpening flakes removed from their surface. The most distinctive property of Folsom artifacts are the flutes—wide, shallow, longitudinal grooves on each face of the point (see Figure 7-6). Flutes are made by removing channel flakes from the point’s base on both sides. Nobody is sure why these artifacts were thinned in this fashion, but everybody agrees that fluting is an extraordinary feat of flintknapping. The technical quality of Folsom points intrigued Crabtree. With enough practice, one can learn to quickly fashion many projectile points. But making Folsom points must have required hours, assuming that one understood how to do it in the first place. And in the twentieth century, nobody did. Archaeologists have long speculated how ancient peoples removed the channel flakes. And for 40 years, Crabtree tried every way he could think of to manufacture Folsom replicas. He described 11 different methods he had tried to remove channel flakes. Most simply didn’t work: Either the method was impossible with primitive tools or the resulting flute was different from those on the Folsom points. One method succeeded only in driving a copper punch through his left hand. Crabtree eventually concluded that channel flakes could be removed in only two ways. In one experiment, he placed an antler shaft, known as a “punch,” on the bottom of the unfinished artifact and then struck the punch with a sharp upward blow. Because placement of the antler punch was critical, this technique required two workers. A second technique was based on the seventeenth-century observations of Juan de Torquemada, a Spanish Franciscan friar who traveled through the Central American jungles in 1615. This method used a chest crutch, with padding at one end and an antler tine hafted to the other, to drive flakes off a core. So, Crabtree manufactured one following Torquemada’s description. He then tied an unfinished experimental Folsom point into a wood-and-thong vise, which he gripped between his feet. Bracing the crutch against his chest and pressing downward, he successfully detached channel flakes, time after time. The resulting artifacts were almost identical to prehistoric Folsom points. Crabtree’s research unleashed an avalanche of experimentation in the fluting problem. These efforts show that some ten different methods can successfully remove channel flakes and produce the distinctive flutes of Folsom points.
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