AbstractThe effect of sand mining o

Abstract
The effect of sand mining on the economic performance of groundwater irrigation has been studied in
the Panruti taluk of Cuddalore district in T amil Nadu. Acomparison of water productivity for different
farms-size categories has been done in sand mining and non-sand mining blocks. The cropping
sequence, cropping intensity , irrigation particulars, investment pattern on tubewells, use of dif ferent
HP-motors, etc. have been studied in sand mining and non-sand mining blocks. The study has
revealed that due to sand mining externality , the watertable has gone down and to offset this effect,
the farmers have been increasing the horse-power of their motors. Thus, investment has been increasing
in the sand mining block in all farm-size categories. Its repercussions have been reflected in the
economic performance of sand mining block in terms of higher annual cost and unit cost of irrigation.
The study has suggested to take necessary steps to augment the groundwater recharge on one hand
and imposing restrictions on indiscriminate sand mining on the other hand. The regulation of sand
quarrying has also been suggested to streamline the flow of river Malattar.
Introduction
In T amil Nadu, 70 per cent of the population
depends on agriculture for its livelihood and irrigation
plays a major role in ensuring agricultural productivity .
Among the sources of irrigation, groundwater
dominates with around 60 per cent share in the gross
irrigated area of the state. Along the riparian areas,
sand beds serve as a recharge-augmenting source
of groundwater . Sand is accumulated in layers along
the river path, due to natural flow of surface water
during monsoons. These layers form a spongy
surface, which enhances groundwater recharge. The
sustainable management of groundwater resource
lies in matching and manoeuvring the recharge and
the extraction factors. The primary source of
groundwater recharge is rainwater which depends
on the soil type, its physical properties, topography ,
nature of vegetation, etc. Thus, a proper harvesting
of rainfall assumes significance in recharging the
groundwater. The surface irrigation sources like
rivers, canals and tanks serve as the major secondary
sources of groundwater recharge. On the other side,
the extraction factors constitute different types of
wells and groundwater lifting devices, which cater
to the intersectoral water demand. The disturbances
in either the recharge facilitating factors or abstraction
factors dislocate the groundwater balance, which
leads to externalities. Thus, the human-induced
problems affect the performance of agriculture and
its prospects will be gloom unless timely and prudent
rescue measures are not taken.
The tail end of the Malattar command area in
Cuddalore district of T amil Nadu faces the sand
mining problems. This area is characterized by sandy
loam soil where paddy is the predominant crop. The
* Author for correspondence; E-mail: Rvauagecon@
rediffmail.com/ [e-mail]
This paper is based on the M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis (2007),
“Performance problems and prospects of irrigated agriculture in Malattar command area of Cuddalore District,
Tamil Nadu”, submitted to Annamalai University by the
first author under the guidance of second author .
184 Agricultural Economics Research Review V ol. 21 July-December 2008
topography slopes downwards, which facilitates its
natural flow towards the Bay of Bengal, from the
west to east. However, indiscriminate sand mining in
the Malattar river has obstructed the natural flow ,
leading to interrupted water flow . This problem has
led to poor groundwater recharge, which in turn, has
affected the agricultural performance of this area.
In this study , a comparison of water productivity
for various sizes of holdings in the two sand mining
regimes has been made. The cropping sequence,
cropping intensity , irrigation particulars, distribution
of motor HP investment pattern on tubewells and
their performance in terms of unit cost of irrigation
water in sand mining and non-sand mining blocks
have been studied.

Sampling Design
This study was conducted in the Malattar
command area of Panruti taluk in Cuddalore district
of Tamil Nadu. Two blocks, viz. Panruti and
Annagramam, were purposively selected for the
study , since they were experiencing the externalities
of irregular and interrupted river flow at varying levels
due to indiscriminate sand mining. Between the two
blocks, the problem of sand mining was acute in the
Panruti block and therefore, it was termed as ‘sand
mining block’. The problem was sporadic in the
Annagramam block and hence, it was denoted as
‘non-sand mining block’. Aquota of 60 respondents
was allotted to each block and they were distributed
as 30 each between the two randomly selected
villages (V eerparumanallur and Siruvathur in the
Panruti block and Thropadi and Oriayur in the
Annagram block). In each village, a sample of 30
households was selected randomly . Thus, the total
sample size constituted 120 farm households. The
field investigations were carried out during September
2006 to February 2007.
T ools of Analysis
Different valuation methods and simple
percentage analysis were used to analyze the primary
and secondary data and to interpret the observed
results.
Cost of Irrigation Water
In this analysis, the marginal cost of water was
calculated by the volumetric pricing method (Johnsson,
2000). The investment on tubewell installation was
arrived at by assessing the cost of various components
(Michael and Khepar , 1989), from which the annual
cost of irrigation was computed, both for the existing
condition of free electricity and with inclusion of
imputed charges for electricity by taking into account
fixed and variable costs of irrigation. The annual cost
(C) was worked out by formula. (1) as:
n n
j j k
j 1 k 1
C r k O
= =
= + ∑ ∑ …(1)
where, r
j
is the capital recovery factor (CRF) for the
j
th
component of capital cost, and is given by
Equation (2):
…(2)
where,
i = Rate of interest (8.5 %),
n = Estimated life of capital asset (20 years),
k
j
= Present value of cost components like pipes,
motor, pumps, pumpshed, etc., and
O
k
= The k
th
component of operating cost of
electricity , annual repairs, maintenance, etc.
(Imputed electricity charges were Rs 0.50 per
kwh).
The electricity consumption was calculated by
the formula (3):
…(3)
The average cost of water was calculated by
dividing the annual cost of irrigation with the quantity
of water pumped out in a year . The total quantity of
water pumped out in a year was calculated by
multiplying the annual running hours with the quantity
of water discharged in an hour, i.e.
Annual running hours =


Results and Discussion
Size of Holding and Irrigation Endowments
Aperusal of T able 1 revealed that 13 farmers
purchased water in the sand mining block, and 11
farmers purchased water in the non-sand mining
block. The water purchasing was prevalent only
among the small and marginal farm categories in both
the blocks. Hence, for further analysis in this study ,
the sample size of 47 in sand mining and 49 in nonsand mining was considered by excluding the water
purchasers.
Cropping Sequence
The cropping sequence followed in the sample
farms has been reported in T able 2. Aperusal of
T able 2 revealed that in both the blocks the percentage
of farmers following the cropping sequence of paddypaddy-black gram was lower as compared to other
cropping schemes. The number of farmers following
the monoculture of paddy , i.e. paddy–paddy–paddy ,
was higher in the sand mining block than non-sand
mining block. The percentage of farmers growing
sugarcane was higher (61.7%) in the sand mining
block than non-sand mining block (55.1%). Hence, it
could be inferred that the more water-extracting crops
were in higher proportion in the sand mining block,
that aggravated the problem of groundwater depletion
in the area, which was already prone to deprivation
in groundwater replenishment due to the sand mining
problems.
Among the size categories, more than 50 per
cent of the small and marginal farms in both the blocks
practised monoculture of paddy throughout the year .
The paddy-paddy-black gram sequence was followed
in a higher proportion by large farmers in both the
blocks. Sugarcane cultivation was not in higher order
among the small and marginal farmers of both the
blocks and it was in higher order with medium farms.
The share of large farms in sugarcane cultivation
was very low.
Cropping Intensity
The cropping intensity of the sample farms,
presented in Table 3, revealed that the average
cropping intensity was higher in the non-sand mining
block than sand mining block. In both the blocks, the
highest cropping intensity was recorded by the
marginal and small farms. This might be due to the availability of adequate irrigation water for the
marginal and small farm-size groups in all the seasons.
Groundwater Irrigation
The general particulars of groundwater irrigation
have been presented in T able 4. Aperusal of T able 4
reveals that two types of wells, dug-cum-bore well
(DCBW) and tubewell (TW), existed in the study
area, wherein tubewells had replaced dug-cum-bore
wells with a high share of around 80 per cent in both
sand mining and non-sand mining blocks. The average
age of wells revealed that the dug-cum-bore well
was an age-old technology and most of the DCBWs
were operating beyond their economic life-period,
whereas the tubewell technology was of recent origin
introduced within a span of 15 years. However , for
the investment and performance analysis, the dugcum-borewell and tubewell were treated alike. The
seasonal watertable fluctuations had a wider range
in the sand mining than non-sand mining block.
A comparison of depth of wells between the
blocks showed that both the initial and present depths
were higher in the sand mining than non-sand mining
block. The number of deepenings and depths of
deepening led to infer that the p

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:

Abstrak
Pengaruh penambangan pasir terhadap kinerja ekonomi irigasi air tanah telah dipelajari di
dalam Panruti taluk distrik Cuddalore di T amil Nadu. Acomparison produktivitas air untuk berbagai
kategori peternakan ukuran telah dilakukan di penambangan pasir dan non-pasir blok pertambangan. Tanam
berurutan, intensitas tanam, keterangan irigasi, pola investasi pada sumur tabung, penggunaan ferent dif
HP-motor, dll telah dipelajari dalam penambangan pasir dan non-pasir blok pertambangan. Studi ini telah
mengungkapkan bahwa karena pasir eksternalitas pertambangan, airtanah telah turun dan untuk mengimbangi efek ini,
para petani telah meningkat kuda-kekuatan motor mereka. Dengan demikian, investasi telah meningkat
di blok penambangan pasir di semua kategori pertanian ukuran. Dampak yang telah tercermin dalam
kinerja ekonomi pasir blok pertambangan dalam hal biaya tahunan yang lebih tinggi dan biaya unit irigasi.
Penelitian telah menyarankan untuk mengambil langkah yang diperlukan untuk menambah resapan air tanah di satu sisi
dan menerapkan pembatasan pada penambangan pasir sembarangan di sisi lain. Peraturan pasir
galian juga telah disarankan untuk merampingkan aliran sungai Malattar.
Pendahuluan
Dalam T amil Nadu, 70 persen dari populasi
tergantung pada pertanian untuk mata pencaharian dan irigasi
memainkan peran utama dalam memastikan produktivitas pertanian.
Di antara sumber irigasi, air tanah
mendominasi dengan sekitar 60 persen saham di bruto
daerah irigasi negara. Sepanjang daerah riparian,
tempat tidur pasir berfungsi sebagai sumber resapan-menambah
air tanah. Pasir terakumulasi dalam lapisan di sepanjang
jalur sungai, karena aliran alami air permukaan
selama musim hujan. Lapisan ini membentuk spons
permukaan, yang meningkatkan resapan air tanah. The
pengelolaan berkelanjutan sumber daya air tanah
terletak pada pencocokan dan manuver mengisi ulang dan
faktor ekstraksi. Sumber utama
resapan air tanah adalah air hujan yang tergantung
pada jenis tanah, sifat fisik, topografi,
sifat vegetasi, dll Dengan demikian, panen yang tepat
curah hujan menganggap penting dalam pengisian
air tanah. Sumber irigasi permukaan seperti
sungai, kanal dan tank berfungsi sebagai sekunder utama
sumber resapan air tanah. Di sisi lain,
faktor ekstraksi merupakan jenis
sumur dan perangkat mengangkat air tanah, yang diperuntukkan
untuk kebutuhan air antarsektor. Gangguan
baik mengisi ulang faktor-faktor atau abstraksi memfasilitasi
faktor terkilir keseimbangan air tanah, yang
menyebabkan eksternalitas. Dengan demikian, manusia yang disebabkan
masalah mempengaruhi kinerja pertanian dan
prospeknya akan kegelapan kecuali tepat waktu dan bijaksana
tindakan penyelamatan tidak diambil.
Akhir ekor area perintah Malattar di
distrik Cuddalore T amil Nadu menghadapi pasir
masalah pertambangan. Daerah ini ditandai dengan berpasir
tanah lempung di mana padi merupakan tanaman yang dominan. The
* Penulis untuk korespondensi; E-mail: Rvauagecon @
rediffmail.com/ [e-mail]
Tulisan ini didasarkan pada M.Sc. (Ag.) Tesis (2007),
"Masalah kinerja dan prospek pertanian irigasi di areal Malattar dari Cuddalore Kabupaten,
Tamil Nadu ", disampaikan kepada Annamalai Universitas oleh
penulis pertama di bawah bimbingan penulis kedua.
184 Ekonomi Pertanian Penelitian Review V ol. Juli-Desember 21, 2008
lereng topografi bawah, yang memfasilitasi nya
aliran alami terhadap Teluk Benggala, dari
barat ke timur. Namun, penambangan pasir sembarangan di
sungai Malattar telah menghambat aliran alami,
yang menyebabkan aliran air terganggu. Masalah ini telah
menyebabkan resapan air tanah yang buruk, yang pada gilirannya, telah
mempengaruhi kinerja pertanian daerah ini.
Dalam penelitian ini, perbandingan produktivitas air
untuk berbagai ukuran kepemilikan di dua penambangan pasir
rezim telah dibuat. Urutan tanam,
intensitas tanam, keterangan irigasi, distribusi
motor pola investasi HP di sumur tabung dan
kinerja mereka dalam hal biaya unit irigasi
air dalam penambangan pasir dan non-pasir blok pertambangan
telah dipelajari. Desain Sampling Penelitian ini dilakukan di Malattar wilayah komando Panruti taluk di distrik Cuddalore Tamil Nadu. Dua blok, yaitu. Panruti dan Annagramam, secara sengaja dipilih untuk studi, karena mereka mengalami eksternalitas aliran sungai yang tidak teratur dan terputus di berbagai tingkat karena penambangan pasir sembarangan. Antara dua blok, masalah penambangan pasir akut di blok Panruti dan oleh karena itu, itu disebut sebagai 'pasir blok pertambangan. Masalahnya adalah sporadis di blok Annagramam dan karenanya, itu dilambangkan sebagai 'non-pasir blok pertambangan. Aquota dari 60 responden yang dialokasikan untuk setiap blok dan mereka didistribusikan 30 masing-masing antara kedua dipilih secara acak desa (V eerparumanallur dan Siruvathur di blok Panruti dan Thropadi dan Oriayur di blok Annagram). Di setiap desa, sampel dari 30 rumah tangga yang dipilih secara acak. Dengan demikian, total ukuran sampel merupakan 120 rumah tangga petani. Para investigasi lapangan yang dilakukan selama September 2006 sampai Februari 2007. T ools Analisis Berbeda metode penilaian dan sederhana analisis persentase yang digunakan untuk menganalisis primer data dan sekunder dan untuk menafsirkan diamati hasil. Biaya Irigasi Air Dalam analisis ini, marjinal biaya air dihitung dengan metode harga volumetrik (Johnsson, 2000). Investasi pada instalasi tubewell itu tiba di dengan menilai biaya berbagai komponen (Michael dan Khepar, 1989), dari mana tahunan biaya irigasi dihitung, baik untuk ada kondisi listrik gratis dan dengan masuknya biaya diperhitungkan untuk listrik oleh mempertimbangkan biaya tetap dan variabel irigasi. Biaya tahunan (C) yang bekerja dengan rumus. (1) sebagai: nn JJK j 1 k 1 C rk O = = = + Σ Σ ... (1) di mana, r j adalah faktor pengembalian modal (CRF) untuk j th komponen biaya modal, dan diberikan oleh Persamaan (2): ... (2) di mana, i = Tingkat bunga (8,5%), n = Perkiraan kehidupan aset modal (20 tahun), k j = Nilai kini komponen biaya seperti pipa, motorik, pompa, pumpshed, dll ., dan O k = k th komponen biaya operasional listrik, perbaikan tahunan, pemeliharaan, dll (biaya listrik Imputasi adalah Rs 0,50 per . kwh) Konsumsi listrik dihitung dengan rumus (3): ... (3) Biaya rata-rata air dihitung dengan membagi biaya tahunan irigasi dengan jumlah air yang dipompa keluar dalam setahun. Jumlah total air yang dipompa keluar dalam satu tahun dihitung dengan mengalikan jam berjalan tahunan dengan jumlah air yang dibuang dalam satu jam, yaitu Tahunan berjalan jam = Hasil dan Diskusi Ukuran Holding dan Irigasi Wakaf Aperusal T mampu 1 mengungkapkan bahwa 13 petani membeli air di blok penambangan pasir, dan 11 petani membeli air di tambang non-pasir blok. Pembelian air umum hanya antara kategori pertanian kecil dan marjinal di kedua blok. Oleh karena itu, untuk analisis lebih lanjut dalam penelitian ini, ukuran sampel dari 47 di penambangan pasir dan 49 di tambang nonsand dianggap oleh tidak termasuk air pembeli. Urutan Tanam Urutan tanam diikuti dalam sampel peternakan telah dilaporkan di T mampu 2. Aperusal dari T mampu 2 mengungkapkan bahwa di kedua blok persentase petani mengikuti urutan tanam paddypaddy-hitam gram lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan yang lain skema tanam. Jumlah petani mengikuti monokultur padi, yaitu padi-padi-padi, lebih tinggi pada blok penambangan pasir daripada non-pasir blok pertambangan. Persentase petani yang menanam tebu lebih tinggi (61,7%) dalam penambangan pasir blok dari non-pasir blok pertambangan (55,1%). Oleh karena itu, dapat disimpulkan bahwa air-extracting lebih banyak tanaman yang dalam proporsi yang lebih tinggi di blok penambangan pasir, yang memperburuk masalah menipisnya air tanah di daerah, yang sudah rentan terhadap kekurangan dalam tanah pengisian karena penambangan pasir masalah. Di antara kategori ukuran, lebih dari 50 per sen dari pertanian kecil dan marjinal di kedua blok dipraktekkan monokultur padi sepanjang tahun. Urutan gram padi-padi-hitam diikuti dalam proporsi yang lebih tinggi oleh petani besar di kedua blok. Budidaya tebu tidak dalam tatanan yang lebih tinggi di antara petani kecil dan marginal dari kedua blok dan itu dalam rangka lebih tinggi dengan peternakan menengah. Pangsa peternakan besar dalam budidaya tebu sangat rendah. Intensitas tanam yang intensitas tanam dari peternakan sampel, disajikan pada Tabel 3, mengungkapkan bahwa rata-rata intensitas tanam lebih tinggi pada pertambangan non-pasir blok dari blok penambangan pasir. Dalam kedua blok, intensitas tanam tertinggi dicatat oleh peternakan marjinal dan kecil. Hal ini mungkin disebabkan karena ketersediaan air irigasi yang memadai untuk kelompok tani ukuran marjinal dan kecil di semua musim. Tanah Irigasi Para khusus umum irigasi air tanah telah disajikan di T mampu 4. Aperusal T mampu 4 mengungkapkan bahwa dua jenis sumur, menggali-cum-sumur bor (DCBW) dan tubewell (TW), ada dalam studi area, dimana sumur tabung menggantikan digali-cum-bore sumur dengan pangsa tinggi sekitar 80 persen di kedua penambangan pasir dan non pasir blok pertambangan. Rata-rata usia sumur mengungkapkan bahwa sumur digali-cum-menanggung adalah teknologi kuno dan sebagian besar DCBWs beroperasi di luar masa kehidupan ekonomi mereka, sedangkan teknologi tubewell adalah asal baru-baru ini diperkenalkan dalam kurun waktu 15 tahun. Namun, untuk analisis investasi dan kinerja, dugcum-Borewell dan tubewell diperlakukan sama. Para fluktuasi airtanah musiman memiliki jangkauan yang lebih luas dalam penambangan pasir dari satu blok pertambangan non-pasir. Perbandingan kedalaman sumur antara blok menunjukkan bahwa baik kedalaman awal dan sekarang lebih tinggi pada penambangan pasir dari non-pasir tambang blok. Jumlah deepenings dan kedalaman pendalaman menyebabkan menyimpulkan bahwa p