The response of positive researchers to the failure of early studies t terjemahan - The response of positive researchers to the failure of early studies t Bahasa Indonesia Bagaimana mengatakan

The response of positive researcher

The response of positive researchers to the failure of early studies to discriminate between the

144

Positive Accounting Theory and Science


competing hypotheses – the no-effects hypothesis and the mechanistic hypothesis – illustrates the attitude of positive researchers towards data and theory. The failure of early studies to discriminate between the competing hypotheses did not lead them to reject the EMH. This is because tests of the no-effects hypothesis are tests of the joint hypotheses of EMH, CAPM, and zero contracting costs (Watts & Zimmerman, 1986, p. 74). The failure might be due to the empirical non-descriptiveness of any one assumption – EMH, CAPM, or zero transaction cost. As noted earlier, instead of rejecting the EMH and CAPM, researchers started to raise questions about the descriptive validity of zero transaction costs and finally dropped the assumption. This suggests that positive researchers do not regard empirical evidence at a point in time as the final arbiter of a theory. Both data and theory have influence over each other. Complex value judgments enter the process of theory evaluation.

Dropping the zero contracting cost assumption, in fact, led Mouck (1990, pp. 236-237) to consider PAT as resembling the Lakatosian research program. The validity of this argument is suspect, because the dropping of the zero contracting costs assumption led to the emergence of a research program distinct from capital market-based accounting research. The new line is the research in accounting choices. It is true that dropping the zero contracting costs assumption enables positive researchers to explain accounting choices. The two research programs, however, address different issues. The new research programs address different questions, let alone explain the success of the capital market-based accounting research program. This developmental pattern does not fit the Lakatosian program, because, according to this program, adjustments are made in the protective belt to accommodate new facts (Lakatos, 1970, pp.133-37). After adjustment, the Lakatosian research program continues to explain the unrefuted content of the earlier version of the theory.

Choice of Theory

Watts and Zimmerman’s (1990, p. 140) position that a theory be abandoned when an alternative theory with greater explanatory power emerges indicated that the competition between rival theories could be decided rationally. The theory with greater explanatory power is selected. This indicates that PAT researchers consider knowledge cumulative in nature. Popper (1970, pp. 56-57) subscribed to this idea. He believed that a critical comparison between competing frameworks was always possible. On the other hand, Kuhn suggested that rival paradigms are incommensurable. Thus the debate over rival paradigms cannot be settled by logic or experiments alone (Kuhn, 1996, pp. 148-150). Persuasion is used to convert the supporters of the old paradigm to the new one (Kuhn, 1996, p. 154). One of the most important features of Kuhn’s account of science is that science is not cumulative in nature. This contrasts with the PAT researchers’ position.

The problem with the above position of PAT on theory choice is that probably no theory with greater explanatory power emerges all of a sudden. The explanatory power that PAT now has is the result of four decades of research efforts. Thus, if the relative explanatory power of competing theories is to be made the arbiter in theory choice, that has to be applied not at the initial stages but at some later stages. So, three relevant methodological questions are (a) how to decide rationally whether to give chance to a new theory or allow it to die away in its infancy, (b) at what stage of theory development the relative explanatory power criterion is to be applied, and (c) how to choose between two theories when the new theory explains some aspects of the old theory and some new phenomena not explained by the old one. The two diagrams in Figure 1 illustrate the third situation. Doubtless to say, a rational decision is much easier to take in Situation A than in Situation B.

Situation B can be illustrated with the help of the legitimacy theory and the stakeholder theory. These theories have been used to explain social and environmental disclosures by an entity (Deegan,
2007). The political cost hypothesis can also be used to explain social and environmental disclosures. For example, using the agency theory framework, Ness and Mirza (1991) found a positive association between environmental disclosures in annual reports of large UK companies and the oil industry. Thus, the legitimacy theory and the stakeholder theory may be considered competing theories of PAT. However, no theory explains fully the phenomena explained by the other theory. Furthermore, as Deegan (2007) notes, the theories in question are based on different assumptions. Thus, the relative explanatory power cannot be used to choose from among these theories at this stage.
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The response of positive researchers to the failure of early studies to discriminate between the 144 Positive Accounting Theory and Science competing hypotheses – the no-effects hypothesis and the mechanistic hypothesis – illustrates the attitude of positive researchers towards data and theory. The failure of early studies to discriminate between the competing hypotheses did not lead them to reject the EMH. This is because tests of the no-effects hypothesis are tests of the joint hypotheses of EMH, CAPM, and zero contracting costs (Watts & Zimmerman, 1986, p. 74). The failure might be due to the empirical non-descriptiveness of any one assumption – EMH, CAPM, or zero transaction cost. As noted earlier, instead of rejecting the EMH and CAPM, researchers started to raise questions about the descriptive validity of zero transaction costs and finally dropped the assumption. This suggests that positive researchers do not regard empirical evidence at a point in time as the final arbiter of a theory. Both data and theory have influence over each other. Complex value judgments enter the process of theory evaluation.Dropping the zero contracting cost assumption, in fact, led Mouck (1990, pp. 236-237) to consider PAT as resembling the Lakatosian research program. The validity of this argument is suspect, because the dropping of the zero contracting costs assumption led to the emergence of a research program distinct from capital market-based accounting research. The new line is the research in accounting choices. It is true that dropping the zero contracting costs assumption enables positive researchers to explain accounting choices. The two research programs, however, address different issues. The new research programs address different questions, let alone explain the success of the capital market-based accounting research program. This developmental pattern does not fit the Lakatosian program, because, according to this program, adjustments are made in the protective belt to accommodate new facts (Lakatos, 1970, pp.133-37). After adjustment, the Lakatosian research program continues to explain the unrefuted content of the earlier version of the theory.Choice of TheoryWatts and Zimmerman’s (1990, p. 140) position that a theory be abandoned when an alternative theory with greater explanatory power emerges indicated that the competition between rival theories could be decided rationally. The theory with greater explanatory power is selected. This indicates that PAT researchers consider knowledge cumulative in nature. Popper (1970, pp. 56-57) subscribed to this idea. He believed that a critical comparison between competing frameworks was always possible. On the other hand, Kuhn suggested that rival paradigms are incommensurable. Thus the debate over rival paradigms cannot be settled by logic or experiments alone (Kuhn, 1996, pp. 148-150). Persuasion is used to convert the supporters of the old paradigm to the new one (Kuhn, 1996, p. 154). One of the most important features of Kuhn’s account of science is that science is not cumulative in nature. This contrasts with the PAT researchers’ position.The problem with the above position of PAT on theory choice is that probably no theory with greater explanatory power emerges all of a sudden. The explanatory power that PAT now has is the result of four decades of research efforts. Thus, if the relative explanatory power of competing theories is to be made the arbiter in theory choice, that has to be applied not at the initial stages but at some later stages. So, three relevant methodological questions are (a) how to decide rationally whether to give chance to a new theory or allow it to die away in its infancy, (b) at what stage of theory development the relative explanatory power criterion is to be applied, and (c) how to choose between two theories when the new theory explains some aspects of the old theory and some new phenomena not explained by the old one. The two diagrams in Figure 1 illustrate the third situation. Doubtless to say, a rational decision is much easier to take in Situation A than in Situation B.Situation B can be illustrated with the help of the legitimacy theory and the stakeholder theory. These theories have been used to explain social and environmental disclosures by an entity (Deegan,2007). The political cost hypothesis can also be used to explain social and environmental disclosures. For example, using the agency theory framework, Ness and Mirza (1991) found a positive association between environmental disclosures in annual reports of large UK companies and the oil industry. Thus, the legitimacy theory and the stakeholder theory may be considered competing theories of PAT. However, no theory explains fully the phenomena explained by the other theory. Furthermore, as Deegan (2007) notes, the theories in question are based on different assumptions. Thus, the relative explanatory power cannot be used to choose from among these theories at this stage.
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Tanggapan peneliti positif terhadap kegagalan studi awal untuk membedakan antara 144 Teori Akuntansi Positif dan Ilmu hipotesis bersaing - tidak ada efek hipotesis dan hipotesis mekanistik - menggambarkan sikap peneliti positif terhadap data dan teori. Kegagalan studi awal untuk membedakan antara hipotesis bersaing tidak memimpin mereka untuk menolak EMH. Hal ini karena tes tidak ada efek hipotesis adalah uji hipotesis bersama EMH, CAPM, dan nol biaya kontrak (Watts & Zimmerman, 1986, p. 74). Kegagalan mungkin karena empiris non-descriptiveness dari salah satu asumsi - EMH, CAPM, atau biaya transaksi nol. Seperti disebutkan sebelumnya, bukannya menolak EMH dan CAPM, peneliti mulai menimbulkan pertanyaan tentang validitas deskriptif biaya transaksi nol dan akhirnya menjatuhkan asumsi. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa peneliti positif tidak menganggap bukti empiris pada suatu titik waktu sebagai wasit final teori. Kedua data dan teori memiliki pengaruh satu sama lain. Penilaian nilai kompleks memasuki proses evaluasi teori. Menjatuhkan biaya asumsi nol kontraktor, pada kenyataannya, dipimpin Mouck (1990, hlm. 236-237) untuk mempertimbangkan PAT sebagai menyerupai program penelitian Lakatosian. Validitas dari argumen ini adalah tersangka, karena menjatuhkan nol kontrak biaya asumsi menyebabkan munculnya program penelitian yang berbeda dari penelitian akuntansi berbasis pasar modal. Baris baru adalah penelitian dalam pilihan akuntansi. Memang benar bahwa menjatuhkan nol kontrak biaya asumsi memungkinkan peneliti positif untuk menjelaskan pilihan akuntansi. Kedua program penelitian, bagaimanapun, mengatasi masalah yang berbeda. Program penelitian baru mengatasi pertanyaan yang berbeda, apalagi menjelaskan keberhasilan program penelitian akuntansi berbasis pasar modal. Pola perkembangan ini tidak sesuai program Lakatosian, karena, sesuai dengan program ini, penyesuaian dilakukan di sabuk pelindung untuk mengakomodasi fakta baru (Lakatos, 1970, pp.133-37). Setelah penyesuaian, program penelitian Lakatosian terus menjelaskan isi unrefuted dari versi sebelumnya dari teori. Pilihan Teori Watts dan Zimmerman (1990, p. 140) posisi itu teori ditinggalkan ketika teori alternatif dengan kekuatan penjelas yang lebih besar mulai muncul ditunjukkan bahwa persaingan antara teori saingan bisa diputuskan secara rasional. Teori dengan kekuatan yang lebih besar jelas dipilih. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa peneliti PAT mempertimbangkan pengetahuan kumulatif di alam. Popper (1970, hlm. 56-57) berlangganan ide ini. Dia percaya bahwa perbandingan kritis antara kerangka bersaing selalu mungkin. Di sisi lain, Kuhn menyatakan bahwa paradigma rival yang dapat dibandingkan. Jadi perdebatan paradigma rival tidak dapat diselesaikan dengan logika atau percobaan saja (Kuhn, 1996, hlm. 148-150). Persuasi digunakan untuk mengkonversi pendukung paradigma lama ke yang baru (Kuhn, 1996, hal. 154). Salah satu fitur yang paling penting dari rekening Kuhn ilmu adalah bahwa ilmu tidak kumulatif di alam. Ini kontras dengan posisi peneliti PAT '. Masalah dengan posisi di atas PAT pada teori pilihan adalah bahwa mungkin ada teori dengan kekuatan penjelas yang lebih besar muncul tiba-tiba. Kekuatan penjelas yang PAT sekarang memiliki adalah hasil dari empat dekade upaya penelitian. Dengan demikian, jika kekuatan penjelas relatif teori yang bersaing harus dibuat wasit dalam teori pilihan, yang harus diterapkan tidak pada tahap awal, tetapi pada beberapa tahap-tahap selanjutnya. Jadi, tiga pertanyaan metodologis yang relevan adalah (a) bagaimana untuk memutuskan secara rasional apakah akan memberikan kesempatan untuk sebuah teori baru atau memungkinkan untuk mati pergi dalam masa pertumbuhan, (b) apa tahap perkembangan teori kriteria kekuatan relatif jelas diterapkan , dan (c) bagaimana memilih antara dua teori ketika teori baru menjelaskan beberapa aspek dari teori lama dan beberapa fenomena baru tidak dijelaskan oleh yang lama. Dua diagram pada Gambar 1 menggambarkan situasi ketiga. Tak diragukan lagi untuk mengatakan, keputusan rasional lebih mudah untuk mengambil dalam Situasi A daripada di Situasi B. Situasi B dapat diilustrasikan dengan bantuan teori legitimasi dan teori stakeholder. Teori-teori ini telah digunakan untuk menjelaskan pengungkapan sosial dan lingkungan oleh entitas (Deegan, 2007). Biaya hipotesis politik juga dapat digunakan untuk menjelaskan pengungkapan sosial dan lingkungan. Misalnya, dengan menggunakan kerangka teori keagenan, Ness dan Mirza (1991) menemukan hubungan positif antara pengungkapan lingkungan dalam laporan tahunan perusahaan besar Inggris dan industri minyak. Dengan demikian, teori legitimasi dan teori stakeholder dapat dianggap bersaing teori PAT. Namun, tidak ada teori menjelaskan sepenuhnya fenomena dijelaskan dengan teori lainnya. Selain itu, sebagai Deegan (2007) mencatat, teori tersebut didasarkan pada asumsi yang berbeda. Dengan demikian, kekuatan relatif jelas tidak dapat digunakan untuk memilih dari antara teori-teori ini pada tahap ini.


















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