CLINICAL INTERVIEW Child clinical i

CLINICAL INTERVIEW
Child clinical interviewing requires a diverse set of skills because the contexts of a child's life are complex and are set along a developmental trajectory (McConaughy, 2005). Younger children are heavily influenced by parents, and as the child develops, influence increasingly comes from peers. Given these interrelated forces and the frequency of comorbidity of internalizing disorders, one of the first goals of the interview is to clarify the referral questions. After the referral questions are clear and some initial hypotheses have been gener-ated, the school neuropsychologist could employ a structured, semistructured, or unstructured interview approach (Semrud-Clikeman, Fine, & Butcher, 2007). Structured interviews typically require proprietary training to administer, and include the Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents (DISC-TV; Reich, Welner, & Herjanic, (1997) and the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-age Children (K-BADS; Ambrosini, 2000; Puig-Antich & Chambers, 1978). Semistructured interviews tend to generate a list of questions that provide a sequence to the interview, but give the interviewer the flexibility to explore responses as needed. Sattler (1998) provides a compendium of semistructured interviews as well as instruction on clinical interviewing. Unstructured interviews with children may include an informal discussion, the use of games to encourage the child to talk about his or her thoughts and feelings, or art-related activities such as drawing or playing with clay in which the child is encouraged to talk about what the artwork creation represents to him or her. When working with children, interviewers should include the child's guardians or teachers. It is important to get a family history of internalizing disorders as well as treatment histories (Semrud-Clikeman et al. 2007). It may be helpful to draw a genogram with the guardian to establish a familial pattern of internalizing disorders (McGoldrick, Gerson, & Petry, 2008).
BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATION
Behavioral observation is an integral assessment process for use with children and adolescents (Merrell, 2003; Sattler, 1998). Behavioral observation occurs in the child's environment and is based on the notion of situational specificity, that is, the assumption that the target behaviors are caused by variables in the immedi-ate setting (Shapiro, 1988). By observing the interaction between the child's behavior and the antecedents and consequences in the setting, one can make inferences about the causes of the behavior. School neuropsychologists have an advantage over clinic-based neuropsychologists in that they can conduct obser-vations of referred children in situ, i.e., the school building. This is of course a challenge for both types of practitioners when it comes to home-schooled children. Miller and Leffard (2007) provide comprehensive coverage of informal behavioral observation as well as published direct observation systems. Two popular published observation systems include the Behavior Assessment System for Children, 2nd Edition, Student Observation System (BASC-2 SOS; Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004) and the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment Direct Observation Form (ASEBA DOF; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001). Finally, there has been an emergence of computer-based observation systems that may simplify the collection of behavioral data (Miller & Leffard, 2007).
BEHAVIORAL RATING SCALES
Broad-Band Rating Scales Behavior rating scales are very popular assessment procedures in school settings because they allow for indirect behavioral data to be collected from multiple informants in a rapid, cost-efficient manner. Most popular behavior rating systems employ the multi-informant approach because each rater provides incremental validity to the assessment results (Merrell, 2003). Multi-informant scales typically include child self-report, parent report, and teacher report forms. Broad-band rating scales, meaning that they assess multiple behavioral constructs at the same time, are useful for providing hypotheses about comorbid problems and patterns of behavioral strengths and weaknesses. Popular broad-band rating scale systems are the Behavior Assessment System for Children, 2nd Edition (BASC-2; Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004) and the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001)
Narrow-Band Rating Scales Numerous narrow-band rating scales, meaning they only assess one or a few related constructs, are available for the assess-ment of depression and anxiety. Popular narrow-band measures of depression include the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1992) and the Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale — II (RADS-II; Reynolds, 2005). Measures of anxiety demonstrating very good psychometric properties include the Multi-dimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC; March, 1997) and the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED; Muris, Merckelback, Schmidt, & Mayer, 1999).

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KLINIS WAWANCARA Child clinical interviewing requires a diverse set of skills because the contexts of a child's life are complex and are set along a developmental trajectory (McConaughy, 2005). Younger children are heavily influenced by parents, and as the child develops, influence increasingly comes from peers. Given these interrelated forces and the frequency of comorbidity of internalizing disorders, one of the first goals of the interview is to clarify the referral questions. After the referral questions are clear and some initial hypotheses have been gener-ated, the school neuropsychologist could employ a structured, semistructured, or unstructured interview approach (Semrud-Clikeman, Fine, & Butcher, 2007). Structured interviews typically require proprietary training to administer, and include the Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents (DISC-TV; Reich, Welner, & Herjanic, (1997) and the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-age Children (K-BADS; Ambrosini, 2000; Puig-Antich & Chambers, 1978). Semistructured interviews tend to generate a list of questions that provide a sequence to the interview, but give the interviewer the flexibility to explore responses as needed. Sattler (1998) provides a compendium of semistructured interviews as well as instruction on clinical interviewing. Unstructured interviews with children may include an informal discussion, the use of games to encourage the child to talk about his or her thoughts and feelings, or art-related activities such as drawing or playing with clay in which the child is encouraged to talk about what the artwork creation represents to him or her. When working with children, interviewers should include the child's guardians or teachers. It is important to get a family history of internalizing disorders as well as treatment histories (Semrud-Clikeman et al. 2007). It may be helpful to draw a genogram with the guardian to establish a familial pattern of internalizing disorders (McGoldrick, Gerson, & Petry, 2008). PENGAMATAN PERILAKU Pengamatan perilaku adalah proses penilaian integral untuk digunakan dengan anak-anak dan remaja (Merrell, 2003; Sattler, 1998). Pengamatan perilaku terjadi dalam lingkungan anak dan didasarkan pada gagasan tentang kekhususan situasional, itu adalah, asumsi bahwa perilaku target yang disebabkan oleh variabel dalam Matikan-makan pengaturan (Shapiro, 1988). Dengan mengamati interaksi antara prilaku anak dan pendahulunya dan konsekuensi dalam pengaturan, seseorang dapat membuat kesimpulan tentang penyebab perilaku. Neuropsychologists sekolah memiliki keuntungan atas berbasis klinik neuropsychologists dalam bahwa mereka dapat melakukan obser-vations anak-anak dimaksud di situ, yaitu gedung sekolah. Hal ini tentu sebuah tantangan untuk kedua jenis praktisi ketika datang ke rumah-schooling anak. Miller dan Leffard (2007) menyediakan cakupan yang komprehensif informal pengamatan perilaku serta diterbitkan sistem pengamatan langsung. Dua sistem pengamatan diterbitkan populer termasuk sistem penilaian perilaku untuk anak-anak, 2nd Edition, siswa pengamatan sistem (BASC-2 SOS; Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004) dan sistem Achenbach penilaian berbasis pengalaman langsung pengamatan formulir (ASEBA DOF; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001). Akhirnya, ada telah munculnya pengamatan berbasis komputer sistem yang dapat menyederhanakan pengumpulan data perilaku (Miller & Leffard, 2007). SKALA RATING PERILAKU Luas-Band Rating timbangan perilaku rating timbangan yang sangat populer penilaian prosedur dalam pengaturan sekolah karena mereka memungkinkan untuk data perilaku yang tidak langsung untuk diambil dari beberapa informan secara cepat, hemat biaya. Sistem peringkat perilaku paling populer menggunakan pendekatan multi informan karena rating masing-masing menyediakan inkremental keabsahan hasil penilaian (Merrell, 2003). Multi informan Timbangan ini biasanya mencakup anak Self-laporan, laporan orang tua dan guru laporan bentuk. Skala luas-band rating, berarti bahwa mereka menilai beberapa perilaku konstruksi pada saat yang sama, berguna untuk memberikan hipotesis tentang masalah komorbiditas dan pola-pola perilaku kekuatan dan kelemahan. Populer luas-band peringkat skala sistem adalah sistem penilaian perilaku untuk anak-anak, 2nd Edition (BASC-2; Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004) dan sistem Achenbach secara empiris berdasarkan penilaian (ASEBA; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001) Narrow-Band Rating Scales Numerous narrow-band rating scales, meaning they only assess one or a few related constructs, are available for the assess-ment of depression and anxiety. Popular narrow-band measures of depression include the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1992) and the Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale — II (RADS-II; Reynolds, 2005). Measures of anxiety demonstrating very good psychometric properties include the Multi-dimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC; March, 1997) and the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED; Muris, Merckelback, Schmidt, & Mayer, 1999).

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KLINIK WAWANCARA
Anak wawancara klinis memerlukan beragam rangkaian keterampilan karena konteks kehidupan anak sangat kompleks dan ditetapkan sepanjang lintasan perkembangan (McConaughy, 2005). Anak-anak muda sangat dipengaruhi oleh orang tua, dan sebagai seorang anak berkembang, pengaruh semakin berasal dari rekan-rekan. Mengingat kekuatan-kekuatan ini saling terkait dan frekuensi komorbiditas gangguan internalisasi, salah satu tujuan pertama wawancara adalah untuk memperjelas pertanyaan rujukan. Setelah pertanyaan rujukan yang jelas dan beberapa hipotesis awal telah Wegener-diciptakan, yang neuropsikolog sekolah bisa mempekerjakan terstruktur, semiterstruktur, atau tidak terstruktur pendekatan wawancara (Semrud-Clikeman, Baik, & Butcher, 2007). Wawancara terstruktur biasanya membutuhkan pelatihan eksklusif untuk mengelola, dan termasuk wawancara diagnostik untuk Anak dan Remaja (DISC-TV; Reich, Welner, & Herjanic, (1997) dan Jadwal Kiddie untuk Affective Disorders dan Skizofrenia untuk usia sekolah Anak (K- BADS; Ambrosini, 2000;. Puig-Antich & Chambers, 1978) wawancara semi terstruktur cenderung menghasilkan daftar pertanyaan yang memberikan urutan ke wawancara, tetapi memberikan pewawancara fleksibilitas untuk mengeksplorasi tanggapan yang diperlukan Sattler (1998) menyediakan. ringkasan wawancara semi terstruktur serta instruksi pada wawancara klinis. wawancara terstruktur dengan anak-anak mungkin termasuk diskusi informal, penggunaan game untuk mendorong anak untuk berbicara tentang nya pikiran dan perasaan, atau kegiatan-art terkait seperti menggambar atau bermain dengan tanah liat di mana anak didorong untuk berbicara tentang apa penciptaan karya seni merupakan kepadanya. Ketika bekerja dengan anak-anak, pewawancara harus mencakup wali atau guru anak. Hal ini penting untuk mendapatkan riwayat keluarga gangguan internalisasi serta sejarah pengobatan (Semrud-Clikeman et al. 2007). Mungkin akan membantu untuk menarik genogram dengan wali untuk membangun pola familial gangguan internalisasi (McGoldrick, Gerson, & Petry, 2008).
OBSERVATION PERILAKU
pengamatan perilaku merupakan proses penilaian yang tidak terpisahkan untuk digunakan dengan anak-anak dan remaja (Merrell, 2003; Sattler, 1998). Pengamatan perilaku terjadi di lingkungan anak dan didasarkan pada gagasan kekhususan situasional, yaitu, asumsi bahwa perilaku sasaran disebabkan oleh variabel dalam immedi-ate pengaturan (Shapiro, 1988). Dengan mengamati interaksi antara perilaku anak dan anteseden dan konsekuensi dalam pengaturan, seseorang dapat membuat kesimpulan tentang penyebab perilaku. Neuropsychologists sekolah memiliki keuntungan lebih neuropsychologists berbasis klinik di bahwa mereka dapat melakukan obser-vations anak disebut in situ, yaitu, gedung sekolah. Hal ini tentu saja merupakan tantangan bagi kedua jenis praktisi ketika datang ke anak-anak home schooling. Miller dan Leffard (2007) memberikan cakupan yang luas dari pengamatan perilaku informal serta dipublikasikan sistem pengamatan langsung. Dua sistem pengamatan diterbitkan populer termasuk Sistem Penilaian Perilaku untuk Anak, Edisi 2, Mahasiswa Sistem Pengamatan (BASC-2 SOS; Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004) dan Sistem Achenbach Penilaian Berbasis Secara empiris Formulir Pengamatan Langsung (ASEBA DOF; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001). Akhirnya, telah terjadi munculnya sistem pengamatan berbasis komputer yang dapat mempermudah pengumpulan data perilaku (Miller & Leffard, 2007).
RATING PERILAKU SCALES
luas-Band Penilaian Timbangan skala penilaian Perilaku prosedur penilaian yang sangat populer dalam pengaturan sekolah karena mereka memungkinkan untuk data perilaku tidak langsung dikumpulkan dari beberapa informan dalam, dengan biaya yang efisien cepat. Kebanyakan sistem rating perilaku populer mempekerjakan pendekatan multi-informan karena setiap penilai memberikan validitas tambahan untuk hasil penilaian (Merrell, 2003). Skala multi-informan biasanya termasuk laporan diri anak, laporan orang tua, dan bentuk-bentuk laporan guru. Skala penilaian yang luas-band, yang berarti bahwa mereka menilai beberapa konstruksi perilaku pada saat yang sama, yang berguna untuk memberikan hipotesis tentang masalah dan pola kekuatan dan kelemahan perilaku komorbiditas. Sistem rating yang luas-band skala populer adalah Sistem Penilaian Perilaku untuk Anak, Edisi 2 (BASC-2; Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004) dan Sistem Achenbach dari empiris Berbasis Assessment (ASEBA; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001)
Narrow-Band Penilaian Timbangan Banyak skala penilaian sempit-band, yang berarti mereka hanya menilai satu atau beberapa konstruksi terkait, yang tersedia untuk menilai-ment depresi dan kecemasan. Langkah-langkah sempit-band populer dari depresi termasuk Anak Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1992) dan Reynolds Remaja Depresi Skala - II (RADS-II; Reynolds, 2005). Tindakan kecemasan menunjukkan sifat psikometrik sangat baik termasuk Skala Multi-dimensi Kecemasan Anak (MASC; Maret 1997) dan Screen untuk Anak Kecemasan Terkait Gangguan Emosional (TAKUT; Muris, Merckelback, Schmidt, & Mayer, 1999).