Cross-Cultural Training As the non-

Cross-Cultural Training
As the non-exhaustive list suggests, there are many types of ITAs and IDAs with different goals and objectives. From this list, the most frequently used and researched activity is cross-cultural training. Traditionally, multinational firms have used cross-cultural training to increase the knowledge and skills of international assignees to help them operate effectively in the unfamiliar host culture (Mendenhall, Kuhlmann, Stahl & Osland, 2002; Morris & Robie, 2001; Kealy & Protheroe, 1996).
A well-designed cross-cultural training initiative may enhance the learning process of the international assignee and thus facilitate effective cross-cultural interactions and cross-cultural adjustment (Black & Gregersen, 1991; Caligiuri, Phillips, Lazarova, Tarique, & Burgi, 2001). To understand the systematic approach to designing cross-cultural training initiatives, Tarique and Caligiuri (2003) propose a five-phase process as a general strategy to follow in designing effective cross-cultural training initiatives. The five phases are:
1) Identify the type of global assignment for which cross-cultural training is needed;
2) Determine the specific cross-cultural training needs (from the organization-level, assignment-level, and the individual-level);
3) Establish the goals and measures for determining cross-cultural training effectiveness;
4) Develop and deliver the cross-cultural training program; and,
5) Evaluate whether the cross-cultural training program was effective.

The first phase includes identifying the type of global assignment for which cross-cultural training is needed. Research has shown that there are different types of global assignments (e.g., Caligiuri & Lazarova, 2001; Hays, 1974; Oddou, 1991) and cross-cultural training will differ based on the goals required for the successful completion of each assignment (Tarique & Caligiuri, 2002; Tarique 2002 . The second phase determines the specific cross-cultural training needs. This involves conducting a cross-cultural training needs analysis across three levels: the organizational-level, the individual (or international assignee) level, and the assignment-level. The organizational-level analysis determines the organizational context for cross-cultural training. This analysis considers how cross-cultural training can assist both headquarters and subsidiaries in supporting the firm’s strategy. The individual (or international assignee) level analysis identifies any special needs that have to be addressed in cross-cultural training for the individuals, who are on the receiving end of the cross-cultural training, the international assignees themselves. This analysis includes examining the international assignee’s prior international experience, his or her existing levels of cross-cultural competencies, how he or she perceives the issues the cross-cultural training initiative is designed to address, and the needs of the international assignee’s entire family. The assignment-level analysis determines the crosscultural competencies required to effectively complete the given assignment. This includes identifying the important tasks required on the global assignment and the type of cross-cultural competencies needed to perform those tasks effectively.
Phase three involves establishing short-term goals and long-term goals for determining cross-cultural training effectiveness. Cross-cultural training goals should be stated in detailed and measurable terms (e.g., Noe, 2004). Short-term cross-cultural training goals can bring about cognitive, affective, and behavioral changes (Gudykunst, Guzley, & Hammer, 1996). Cognitive goals focus on helping international assignees understand the role of cultural values on behavior in the destination country, in both social and business contexts. Affective goals aim at helping international assignees effectively manage their attitude toward the new culture and successfully handle negative emotions. Behavioral goals help international assignees form adaptive behaviors by emphasizing the transnational skills international assignees require in order to successfully interact with individuals from other cultures. While the short-term goals of cross cultural training will vary from assignment to assignment, the long-term goal of many cross-cultural training initiatives is to improve the rate of cross-cultural adjustment. Improving cross-cultural adjustment is important for all international assignees and would generalize across assignments.
The fourth phase develops and delivers the cross-cultural training initiative. This phase involves determining the specific instructional content needed in order to achieve the stated goal and the methods to deliver the instructional content, and the sequencing of the training sessions. Based on the cross-cultural and intercultural communication research (e.g., Brislin, Cushner, Cherrie, & Yong, 1986; Copeland & Griggs, 1985; Harris & Moran, 1991), Harrison suggests that content structure should follow an integrated approach consisting of both general cultural orientation (to understand factors that may influence one's receptiveness to effective crosscultural interactions and to understand how cultures differ and the impact of these differences on international assignees) and specific cultural orientation (to help international assignees understand more about the specific culture to which they are being assigned).
Gudykunst, Guzley, and Hammer (1996) suggest that the methods to deliver the instructional content can be categorized into four categories:
1) Didactic culture general;
2) Didactic culture specific;
3) Experiential cultural general; and,
4) Experiential cultural specific.

Didactic culture general methods provide cultural general information to international assignees and include lectures, seminars, reading martial, discussions, videotapes, and culturegeneral assimilators. Didactic culture specific methods, in contrast, present information on a particular culture. Methods used in this category include area studies, videotapes, orientation briefings, case studies, and the like. Experiential cultural methods help international assignees experience the impact of cultural differences on their behaviours. Methods in this category include immersion programs or intensive workshops. Experiential culture-specific methods, in contrast, help international assignees experience and learn from interactions with individuals from the host culture. This approach generally includes methods like role-playing, look-see trips, in-country cultural coaching, and language training (Gudykunst, Guzley, & Hammer, 1996).
Lastly, phase five evaluates whether the cross-cultural training initiative was effective. Crosscultural training evaluation refers to the systematic process of gathering information necessary to determine the effectiveness of cross-cultural training. Cross-cultural training effectiveness is generally defined in terms of the benefits the international assignees receive from cross-cultural training and is determined by the extent to which international assignees have changed as a result of participating in cross-cultural training. The evaluation process involves establishing measures of effectiveness, and developing research designs to determine what changes (e.g., cognitive, affective, and behavioral) have occurred during the training. Results from the cross-cultural training evaluation should help the organization decide whether cross-cultural training should be continued in its current form or modified.
Future research on these proposed phases and the various categories of cross-cultural training content (proposed by Gudykunst, et al., 1996) is an important area for investigation. The optimal combination of delivery methods and content for producing the desired outcome has not yet been determined. For example, are some content areas better covered before (or while) an individual is experiencing a culture? Currently, many cross-cultural training programs are delivered prior to the international assignment – with questionable influence on adjustment (Mendenhall et al, 2004). Also, a better understanding of the limits and generalizability across organizational, cultural, national, and individual contexts for cross-cultural training is an important area to explore in future research.

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 1:

Pelatihan lintas budaya Sebagai menunjukkan daftar non-lengkap, ada banyak jenis ITAs dan IDAs dengan tujuan dan tujuan yang berbeda. Dari daftar ini, yang paling sering digunakan dan aktivitas diteliti adalah pelatihan lintas budaya. Secara tradisional, perusahaan-perusahaan multinasional telah menggunakan Antarbudaya pelatihan untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan dan keterampilan assignees internasional untuk membantu mereka beroperasi secara efektif dalam budaya asing host (Mendenhall, Kuhlmann, Stahl & Osland, 2002; Morris & Robie, 2001; Kealy & Protheroe, 1996). Inisiatif pelatihan lintas budaya yang dirancang dengan baik yang dapat meningkatkan proses pembelajaran diberi tugas internasional dan sehingga memudahkan interaksi lintas budaya yang efektif dan Antarbudaya penyesuaian (hitam & Gregersen, 1991; Caligiuri, Phillips, Lazarova, Tarique, & Burgi, 2001). Untuk memahami pendekatan yang sistematis untuk merancang inisiatif pelatihan lintas budaya, Tarique dan Caligiuri (2003) mengusulkan lima-tahap proses sebagai strategi umum untuk mengikuti dalam merancang inisiatif pelatihan lintas budaya yang efektif. Adalah bahwa lima fase:1) mengidentifikasi jenis tugas global yang Antarbudaya pelatihan yang dibutuhkan;2) menentukan kebutuhan spesifik pelatihan lintas budaya (dari tingkat organisasi, penetapan tingkat, dan tingkat individu);3) menetapkan tujuan dan langkah-langkah untuk menentukan efektivitas pelatihan lintas budaya;4) mengembangkan dan memberikan pelatihan lintas-budaya program; dan,5) mengevaluasi apakah program pelatihan lintas budaya adalah efektif. The first phase includes identifying the type of global assignment for which cross-cultural training is needed. Research has shown that there are different types of global assignments (e.g., Caligiuri & Lazarova, 2001; Hays, 1974; Oddou, 1991) and cross-cultural training will differ based on the goals required for the successful completion of each assignment (Tarique & Caligiuri, 2002; Tarique 2002 . The second phase determines the specific cross-cultural training needs. This involves conducting a cross-cultural training needs analysis across three levels: the organizational-level, the individual (or international assignee) level, and the assignment-level. The organizational-level analysis determines the organizational context for cross-cultural training. This analysis considers how cross-cultural training can assist both headquarters and subsidiaries in supporting the firm’s strategy. The individual (or international assignee) level analysis identifies any special needs that have to be addressed in cross-cultural training for the individuals, who are on the receiving end of the cross-cultural training, the international assignees themselves. This analysis includes examining the international assignee’s prior international experience, his or her existing levels of cross-cultural competencies, how he or she perceives the issues the cross-cultural training initiative is designed to address, and the needs of the international assignee’s entire family. The assignment-level analysis determines the crosscultural competencies required to effectively complete the given assignment. This includes identifying the important tasks required on the global assignment and the type of cross-cultural competencies needed to perform those tasks effectively. Tiga tahap melibatkan membangun tujuan jangka pendek dan jangka panjang tujuan untuk menentukan efektivitas pelatihan lintas budaya. Tujuan pelatihan lintas budaya harus dinyatakan dalam istilah rinci dan terukur (misalnya, Noe, 2004). Tujuan pelatihan lintas budaya jangka pendek dapat membawa perubahan kognitif, afektif dan perilaku (Gudykunst, Guzley, & palu, 1996). Tujuan kognitif fokus pada membantu internasional assignees memahami peran nilai-nilai budaya pada perilaku di negara tujuan, dalam konteks sosial dan bisnis. Tujuan afektif bertujuan membantu assignees internasional secara efektif mengelola sikap mereka terhadap budaya baru dan berhasil menangani emosi negatif. Perilaku tujuan membantu internasional assignees bentuk adaptif perilaku dengan menekankan keterampilan transnasional assignees internasional memerlukan dalam rangka untuk berhasil berinteraksi dengan orang-orang dari kebudayaan lain. Sementara tujuan jangka pendek lintas budaya pelatihan akan bervariasi dari tugas untuk tugas, tujuan jangka panjang dari banyak inisiatif pelatihan lintas budaya adalah untuk meningkatkan tingkat Antarbudaya penyesuaian. Meningkatkan Antarbudaya penyesuaian penting bagi semua assignees internasional dan akan menggeneralisasi seluruh tugas. The fourth phase develops and delivers the cross-cultural training initiative. This phase involves determining the specific instructional content needed in order to achieve the stated goal and the methods to deliver the instructional content, and the sequencing of the training sessions. Based on the cross-cultural and intercultural communication research (e.g., Brislin, Cushner, Cherrie, & Yong, 1986; Copeland & Griggs, 1985; Harris & Moran, 1991), Harrison suggests that content structure should follow an integrated approach consisting of both general cultural orientation (to understand factors that may influence one's receptiveness to effective crosscultural interactions and to understand how cultures differ and the impact of these differences on international assignees) and specific cultural orientation (to help international assignees understand more about the specific culture to which they are being assigned). Gudykunst, Guzley, and Hammer (1996) suggest that the methods to deliver the instructional content can be categorized into four categories:1) Didactic culture general;2) Didactic culture specific;3) Experiential cultural general; and,4) Experiential cultural specific. Didactic culture general methods provide cultural general information to international assignees and include lectures, seminars, reading martial, discussions, videotapes, and culturegeneral assimilators. Didactic culture specific methods, in contrast, present information on a particular culture. Methods used in this category include area studies, videotapes, orientation briefings, case studies, and the like. Experiential cultural methods help international assignees experience the impact of cultural differences on their behaviours. Methods in this category include immersion programs or intensive workshops. Experiential culture-specific methods, in contrast, help international assignees experience and learn from interactions with individuals from the host culture. This approach generally includes methods like role-playing, look-see trips, in-country cultural coaching, and language training (Gudykunst, Guzley, & Hammer, 1996). Lastly, phase five evaluates whether the cross-cultural training initiative was effective. Crosscultural training evaluation refers to the systematic process of gathering information necessary to determine the effectiveness of cross-cultural training. Cross-cultural training effectiveness is generally defined in terms of the benefits the international assignees receive from cross-cultural training and is determined by the extent to which international assignees have changed as a result of participating in cross-cultural training. The evaluation process involves establishing measures of effectiveness, and developing research designs to determine what changes (e.g., cognitive, affective, and behavioral) have occurred during the training. Results from the cross-cultural training evaluation should help the organization decide whether cross-cultural training should be continued in its current form or modified. Future research on these proposed phases and the various categories of cross-cultural training content (proposed by Gudykunst, et al., 1996) is an important area for investigation. The optimal combination of delivery methods and content for producing the desired outcome has not yet been determined. For example, are some content areas better covered before (or while) an individual is experiencing a culture? Currently, many cross-cultural training programs are delivered prior to the international assignment – with questionable influence on adjustment (Mendenhall et al, 2004). Also, a better understanding of the limits and generalizability across organizational, cultural, national, and individual contexts for cross-cultural training is an important area to explore in future research.

Hasil (Bahasa Indonesia) 2:

Pelatihan Lintas Budaya
Sebagai daftar lengkap non-menunjukkan, ada banyak jenis itas dan Idas dengan tujuan dan sasaran yang berbeda. Dari daftar ini, aktivitas yang paling sering digunakan dan diteliti adalah pelatihan lintas-budaya. Secara tradisional, perusahaan multinasional telah menggunakan pelatihan lintas-budaya untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan dan keterampilan assignees internasional untuk membantu mereka beroperasi secara efektif dalam budaya tuan rumah asing (Mendenhall, Kuhlmann, Stahl & osland, 2002; Morris & Robie, 2001; Kealy & Protheroe, . 1996)
Sebuah inisiatif pelatihan lintas-budaya yang dirancang dengan baik dapat meningkatkan proses pembelajaran dari penerima hak internasional dan dengan demikian memfasilitasi interaksi lintas budaya yang efektif dan penyesuaian lintas budaya (Black & Gregersen, 1991; Caligiuri, Phillips, Lazarova, Tarique, & Burgi, 2001). Untuk memahami pendekatan sistematis untuk merancang inisiatif pelatihan lintas-budaya, Tarique dan Caligiuri (2003) mengusulkan proses lima-fase sebagai strategi umum untuk mengikuti dalam merancang inisiatif pelatihan lintas-budaya yang efektif. Kelima fase tersebut adalah:
1) Mengidentifikasi jenis tugas global untuk yang pelatihan lintas budaya diperlukan;
2) Menentukan kebutuhan pelatihan lintas-budaya tertentu (dari tingkat organisasi, tugas-tingkat, dan tingkat individu);
3) Menetapkan tujuan dan langkah-langkah untuk menentukan efektivitas pelatihan lintas-budaya;
4) Mengembangkan dan memberikan program pelatihan lintas budaya; dan,
5) Mengevaluasi apakah program pelatihan lintas budaya efektif. Tahap pertama mencakup mengidentifikasi jenis tugas global untuk yang pelatihan lintas-budaya diperlukan. Penelitian telah menunjukkan bahwa ada berbagai jenis tugas global yang (misalnya, Caligiuri & Lazarova, 2001; Hays, 1974; Oddou, 1991) dan pelatihan lintas-budaya akan berbeda berdasarkan tujuan yang diperlukan untuk berhasil menyelesaikan setiap tugas (Tarique & . Caligiuri, 2002; Tarique 2002 Tahap kedua menentukan pelatihan lintas-budaya tertentu membutuhkan ini melibatkan melakukan pelatihan lintas-budaya analisis kebutuhan di tiga tingkat: organisasi-tingkat, individu (atau penerima hak internasional) tingkat, dan penugasan. -tingkat. Analisis organisasi tingkat menentukan konteks organisasi untuk pelatihan lintas-budaya. Analisis ini mempertimbangkan bagaimana pelatihan lintas-budaya dapat membantu kedua kantor pusat dan anak perusahaan dalam mendukung strategi perusahaan. Individu (atau penerima hak internasional) analisis tingkat mengidentifikasi kerusakan khusus kebutuhan yang harus diatasi dalam pelatihan lintas budaya bagi individu, yang berada di akhir penerimaan pelatihan lintas-budaya, assignees internasional sendiri. Analisis ini meliputi pemeriksaan pengalaman pengalihan internasional sebelum internasional, nya tingkat yang ada kompetensi lintas budaya, bagaimana dia merasakan masalah inisiatif pelatihan lintas budaya dirancang untuk mengatasi, dan kebutuhan seluruh keluarga penerima hak internasional. Analisis tugas-tingkat menentukan kompetensi lintas budaya diperlukan untuk secara efektif menyelesaikan tugas yang diberikan. Ini termasuk mengidentifikasi tugas-tugas penting yang dibutuhkan pada tugas global dan jenis kompetensi lintas budaya yang dibutuhkan untuk melakukan tugas-tugas secara efektif. Tahap tiga melibatkan menetapkan tujuan jangka pendek dan tujuan jangka panjang untuk menentukan efektivitas pelatihan lintas-budaya. Tujuan pelatihan lintas-budaya harus dinyatakan dalam istilah rinci dan terukur (misalnya, Noe, 2004). Tujuan pelatihan lintas budaya jangka pendek dapat membawa kognitif, afektif, dan perubahan perilaku (Gudykunst, Guzley, & Hammer, 1996). Tujuan kognitif berfokus pada membantu assignees internasional memahami peran nilai-nilai budaya pada perilaku di negara tujuan, baik dalam konteks sosial dan bisnis. Tujuan afektif bertujuan membantu assignees internasional secara efektif mengelola sikap mereka terhadap budaya baru dan berhasil menangani emosi negatif. Tujuan perilaku membantu assignees internasional membentuk perilaku adaptif dengan menekankan keterampilan transnasional assignees internasional perlukan untuk berhasil berinteraksi dengan individu dari budaya lain. Sedangkan tujuan jangka pendek dari pelatihan lintas budaya akan bervariasi dari tugas untuk tugas, tujuan jangka panjang dari banyak inisiatif pelatihan lintas-budaya adalah untuk meningkatkan tingkat penyesuaian lintas budaya. Meningkatkan penyesuaian lintas budaya penting bagi semua assignees internasional dan akan menggeneralisasi seluruh tugas. Tahap keempat mengembangkan dan memberikan inisiatif pelatihan lintas-budaya. Fase ini meliputi penentuan konten instruksional khusus yang diperlukan untuk mencapai tujuan yang ditetapkan dan metode untuk menyampaikan isi instruksional, dan urutan dari sesi pelatihan. Berdasarkan penelitian komunikasi lintas-budaya dan antar (misalnya, Brislin, Cushner, Cherrie, & Yong, 1986; Copeland & Griggs, 1985; Harris & Moran, 1991), Harrison menunjukkan bahwa struktur konten harus mengikuti pendekatan terpadu yang terdiri dari kedua orientasi budaya umum (untuk memahami faktor-faktor yang dapat mempengaruhi reseptif seseorang untuk interaksi lintas budaya yang efektif dan untuk memahami bagaimana budaya berbeda dan dampak dari perbedaan-perbedaan ini pada assignees internasional) dan orientasi budaya tertentu (untuk membantu assignees internasional memahami lebih banyak tentang budaya spesifik yang mereka sedang ditugaskan). Gudykunst, Guzley, dan Hammer (1996) menunjukkan bahwa metode untuk menyampaikan konten pembelajaran dapat dikategorikan ke dalam empat kategori: 1) budaya Didaktik umum; 2) budaya Didaktik spesifik; 3) Experiential budaya umum; dan, 4) Experiential spesifik budaya. budaya Didaktik metode umum memberikan informasi umum budaya assignees internasional dan meliputi kuliah, seminar, membaca bela diri, diskusi, kaset video, dan assimilators culturegeneral. Didaktik metode kultur tertentu, sebaliknya, menyajikan informasi pada budaya tertentu. Metode yang digunakan dalam kategori ini meliputi studi area, kaset video, briefing orientasi, studi kasus, dan sejenisnya. Metode budaya Experiential membantu assignees internasional mengalami dampak perbedaan budaya pada perilaku mereka. Metode dalam kategori ini meliputi program perendaman atau lokakarya intensif. Metode budaya khusus Experiential, sebaliknya, membantu assignees internasional pengalaman dan belajar dari interaksi dengan individu dari budaya lokal. Pendekatan ini umumnya termasuk metode seperti role-playing, melihat-lihat perjalanan, di dalam negeri pembinaan budaya, dan pelatihan bahasa (Gudykunst, Guzley, & Hammer, 1996). Terakhir, fase lima mengevaluasi apakah inisiatif pelatihan lintas-budaya efektif. Evaluasi pelatihan lintas budaya mengacu pada proses sistematis mengumpulkan informasi yang diperlukan untuk menentukan efektivitas pelatihan lintas-budaya. Efektivitas pelatihan lintas budaya secara umum didefinisikan dalam hal manfaat assignees internasional terima dari pelatihan lintas-budaya dan ditentukan oleh sejauh mana assignees internasional telah berubah sebagai hasil dari mengikuti pelatihan lintas budaya. Proses evaluasi melibatkan pembentukan ukuran efektivitas, dan mengembangkan desain penelitian untuk menentukan perubahan apa (misalnya, kognitif, afektif, dan perilaku) telah terjadi selama pelatihan. Hasil dari evaluasi pelatihan lintas-budaya harus membantu organisasi memutuskan apakah pelatihan lintas-budaya harus dilanjutkan dalam bentuk yang sekarang atau dimodifikasi. Penelitian di masa depan pada tahap ini diusulkan dan berbagai kategori konten pelatihan lintas-budaya (diusulkan oleh Gudykunst, et al., 1996) merupakan area yang penting untuk penyelidikan. Kombinasi optimal metode penyampaian dan konten untuk memproduksi hasil yang diinginkan belum ditentukan. Sebagai contoh, beberapa daerah konten yang lebih baik tertutup sebelum (atau sementara) individu mengalami budaya? Saat ini, banyak program pelatihan lintas-budaya dikirim sebelum penugasan internasional - dengan pengaruh dipertanyakan pada penyesuaian (Mendenhall et al, 2004). Juga, pemahaman yang lebih baik dari batas dan generalisasi di organisasi, budaya, nasional, dan individu konteks untuk pelatihan lintas-budaya merupakan area yang penting untuk mengeksplorasi dalam penelitian masa depan.