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BAB 1Psikologi memoriAlan D. BaddeleyJurusan psikologi, University of York, UKDalam bab ini saya akan mencoba untuk memberikan gambaran singkat mengenai konsep-konsep dan teknik yangyang paling banyak digunakan dalam psikologi memori. Meskipun mungkin tidak muncul untuk menjadikasus dari sampling literatur, sebenarnya ada banyak perjanjian mengenai apaPsikologi memori, banyak dikembangkan melalui interaksi yang merupakanStudi normal memori di laboratorium dan yang kerusakan otak yang rusak pasien.Account yang agak lebih rinci dapat ditemukan di Parkin & Leng (1993) dan Baddeley(1999), sementara overviewis lebih luas yang diberikan oleh Baddeley (1997), dan dalam berbagaiBab-bab yang terdiri dari buku pegangan memori (Tulving & Craik, 2000).FRAKSINASI MEMORIKonsep manusia memori sebagai Fakultas kesatuan yang mulai serius terkikis ditahun 1960-an dengan proposal tersebut bahwa jangka panjang memori (LTM) dan memori jangka pendek (STM)mewakili sistem terpisah. Di antara bukti terkuat bagi pemisahan ini adalahkontras antara dua jenis pasien neuropsychological. Pasien dengan klasik amnesicSindrom, biasanya terkait dengan kerusakan lobus temporal dan hippocampi, munculmemiliki masalah yang cukup umum dalam belajar dan mengingat materi baru, Apakah verbalatau visual (Milner, 1966). Mereka melakukannya, namun, tampaknya memiliki memori jangka pendek yang normal(STM), as measured for example by digit span, the capacity to hear and immediately repeatback a unfamiliar sequence of numbers. Shallice &Warrington (1970) identified an exactlyopposite pattern of deficit in patients with damage to the perisylvian region of the lefthemisphere. Such patients had a digit span limited to one or two, but apparently normalLTM. By the late 1960s, the evidence seemed to be pointing clearly to a two-componentmemory system. Figure 1.1 shows the representation of such a system from an influentialmodel of the time, that of Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968). Information is assumed to flow fromthe environment through a series of very brief sensory memories, that are perhaps bestregarded as part of the perceptual system, into a limited capacity short-term store. Theyproposed that the longer an item resides in this store, the greater the probability of its transferto LTM. Amnesic patients were assumed to have a deficit in the LTM system, and STMpatients in the short-term store.The Essential Handbook of Memory Disorders for Clinicians. Edited by A.D. Baddeley, M.D. Kopelman and B.A. Wilson.C 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN 0-470-09141-X.2 A.D. BADDELEYEnvironmentalinputSensory registersVisualAuditoryShort-term store(STS)Temporaryworking memoryLong-term store(LTS)Permanentmemory storeControl processes:RehearsalCodingDecisionRetrieval strategiesResponse outputHapticFigure 1.1 The model of human memory proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin. Reproduced fromAtkinson & Shiffrin (1968)By the early 1970s, itwas clear that the model had encountered at least two problems. Thefirst of these concerned the learning assumption. Evidence suggested that merely holdingan item in STM did not guarantee learning. Much more important was the processing thatthe item underwent. This is emphasized in the levels-of-processing framework proposed byCraik&Lockhart (1972). They suggested that probability of subsequent recall or recognitionwas a direct function of the depth to which an item was processed. Hence, if the subjectmerely noted the visual characteristics of a word, for example whether it was in upperor lower case, little learning would follow. Slightly more would be remembered if theword were also processed acoustically by deciding, for example, whether it rhymed witha specified target word. By far the best recall, however, followed semantic processing, inwhich the subject made a judgement about the meaning of the word, or perhaps related itto a specified sentence, or to his/her own experience.THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MEMORY 3This levels of processing effect has been replicated many times, and although the specificinterpretation proposed is not universally accepted, there is no doubt that a word or experiencethat is processed in a deep way that elaborates the experience and links it with priorknowledge, is likely to be far better retained than one that receives only cursory analysis.The effect also occurs in the case of patients with memory deficits, making it a potentiallyuseful discovery for those interested in memory rehabilitation, although it is important toremember that cognitive impairment may hinder the processes necessary for such elaboration.Indeed, it was at one point suggested that failure to elaborate might be at the root ofthe classic amnesic syndrome, although further investigation showed this was not the case(see Baddeley, 1997, for further discussion).A second problem for the Atkinson & Shiffrin model was presented by the data on STMpatients that had initially appeared to support it. Although such patients argued strongly fora dissociation between LTM and STM, the Atkinson & Shiffrin model assumed that STMwas necessary, indeed crucial, for long-term learning, and indeed for many other cognitiveactivities. In fact, STM patients appeared to have normal LTM, and with one or two minorexceptions, such as working out change while shopping, had very few everday cognitiveproblems.This issue was tackled by Baddeley & Hitch (1974), who were explicitly concerned withthe relationship between STM and LTM. A series of experiments attempted to block STMin normal subjects by requiring them to recite digit sequences while performing other tasks,such as learning, reasoning or comprehending, that were assumed to depend crucially uponSTM. Decrement occurred, with the impairment increasing with the length of the digitsequence that was being retained, suggesting that STM and LTMdid interact. However, theeffect was far from dramatic, again calling into question the standard model. Baddeley &Hitch proposed that the concept of a simple unitary STM be replaced by a more complexsystem which they termed “working memory”, so as to emphasize its functional importancein cognitive processing. The model they proposed is shown in Figure 1.2.Working memory is assumed to comprise an attentional controller, the central executive,assisted by two subsidiary systems, the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad.The phonological (or articulatory) loop is assumed to comprise a store that holds memorytraces for a couple of seconds, combined with a subvocal rehearsal process. This is capableof maintaining the items in memory using subvocal speech, which can also be used toconvert nameable but visually presented stimuli, such as letters orwords, into a phonologicalcode. STM patients were assumed to have a deficit in this system, whereas the remainderof working memory was assumed to be spared (Vallar & Baddeley, 1984). Subsequentresearch, based on STM patients, normal children and adults, and children with specificlanguage impairment, suggest that the phonological loop system may have evolved for thepurpose of language acquisition (Baddeley et al., 1998). A more detailed account of thissistem dan rincian yang diberikan oleh Vallar & Papagno (2002).PusatEksekutifFonologiloopVisuospatialsketsaGambar 1.2 The Baddeley & halangan model memori kerja. Direproduksi dari Baddeley &Halangan (1974)4 A.D. BADDELEYVisuospatial sketsa (atau papan penggaris) dianggap penyimpanan sementara allowthe danmanipulasi informasi visual dan spasial. Fungsinya dapat terganggu oleh serentakaktivitas visuospatial dan, seperti dalam kasus loop fonologi, pemahaman kita memilikitelah dikemukakan oleh studi pasien neuropsychological. Lebih khusus lagi, tidak munculmenjadi komponen visual dan tata ruang yang terpisah, yang mungkin diferensial terganggu. Lebihrinci tentang sistem ini dan bukti neuropsychological yang relevan yang diberikan olehDella Sala & Logie (2002).Komponen ketiga model, eksekutif pusat, diasumsikan menyediakan attentionalmengontrol sistem, baik untuk subsistem memori kerja dan kegiatan lainnya.Baddeley (1986) menyarankan bahwa sebuah account yang baik itu mungkin disediakan oleh Pengawassistem attentional (SAS) diusulkan oleh Norman & Shallice (1986) untuk memperhitungkan attentionalkontrol dari tindakan. Mereka menganggap bahwa banyak kegiatan dikendalikan oleh kebiasaan baik belajardan skema, dipandu oleh lingkungan isyarat. Novel tindakan yang dibutuhkan untuk meresponuntuk situasi tak terduga, namun, bergantung pada intervensi terbatas-kapasitasSAS. Ini dianggap mampu meng-override kebiasaan sehingga memungkinkan novel tindakan diRespon untuk tantangan baru. Slip tindakan, seperti mengemudi ke kantor daripada supermarketpada Sabtu pagi, yang dikaitkan dengan kegagalan SAS untuk menimpa sepertikebiasaan. Masalah-masalah dalam tindakan kontrol ditunjukkan oleh pasien dengan lobus frontal kerusakanjuga dikaitkan dengan kegagalan SAS; oleh karena itu, kegiatan perseverative mungkin mencerminkan kegagalandari SAS untuk melepaskan diri dari dominasi tindakan oleh lingkungan isyarat (Shallice,1988).Kedua Shallice dirinya dan orang lain telah diperpanjang account mereka untuk menyertakan berbagai berpotensiproses eksekutif dipisahkan, karenanya memberikan account jangkauan berbedadefisit yang mungkin terjadi pada pasien dengan lobus frontal kerusakan (Baddeley, 1996; Duncan, 1996;Shallice & Burgess, 1996). Diberikan jauh dari mudah pemetaan lokasi anatomike fungsi kognitif, Baddeley & Wilson (1988) menyatakan bahwa istilah "frontalSindrom lobus"digantikan dengan istilah lebih fungsional,"sindrom dysexecutive". UntukTerakhir review dari daerah ini, lihat Roberts et al. (1998) dan Stuss & Knight (2002).Implikasi dari lobus frontal fungsi dan eksekutif defisit untuk fungsimemori besar, sejak Eksekutif
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